Vocational education and training (VET) occupations in shortage

VET systems are central to providing the practical and technical skills required for climate neutrality and digital transformation. However, persistent labour and skills shortages in VET occupations threaten EU competitiveness, innovation, and sustainable growth.

This policy brief analyses the key drivers of VET shortages across the EU, including an ageing workforce, unattractive working conditions, gender segregation, limited teacher supply, and outdated curricula that struggle to keep pace with green and digital demands. It supports policy discussions linked to the Union of Skills (2025), the Herning Declaration (2025) on VET priorities for 2026 -2030, the forthcoming European VET strategy (2026), and the proposed Quality Jobs Act.

Facts and findings

• In 2024 22 VET occupations experiencing EU-wide shortages.
• The most widespread shortages are found in metal and manufacturing (welders, metal sheet workers), construction (electricians, plumbers), food processing (cooks, bakers), transport (heavy truck drivers), and health and social care (care assistants)
• The policy brief finds that VET skills shortages in the EU are widespread and driven by demographic ageing, low job attractiveness, gender imbalances, teacher shortages, poor working conditions, and structural mismatches.
• Demographic pressures are intensifying shortages. Employees nearing retirement already account for around 10% of total employment and 40% of teachers in the EU aged 50 or older.
• ICT VET enrolments increased significantly (from ~113 000 to ~180 000 between 2016-2023). However, only about 60% of students complete ICT VET programmes. Completion among female ICT students is below 50%, while in healthcare exceeds 90% for females.
• AI is projected to reduce EU employment by about 5%. Between 19%–68% of workplace tasks are exposed to AI replacement. However, VET occupations are less exposed to AI replacement risk on average than non-VET occupations. Some VET occupations have very low replacement scores (e.g., insulation workers).
• VET is highly effective at delivering transferable skills. Skills matching among VET graduates is much higher than matching by education level or field of study, often exceeding 70-80%.

Key messages

• The drivers of shortages are complex: shortages are not merely caused by a lack of qualified workers or ageing of EU society, they are also driven by low pay, strenuous working conditions, outdated curricula, and restrictive recruitment practices. Furthermore, institutional barriers like fixed enrolment limits and slow recognition of foreign qualifications limit the available pool of candidates.
• VET teacher shortages create a vicious cycle: training institutions struggle to attract and retain teachers and this lack of capacity threatens the practical relevance of training and reduces the credibility of VET programmes for new learners impacting the overall perceived attractiveness of VET system.
• While AI is transforming the labour market, VET roles generally face lower replacement risks than non-VET occupations. However, it is still essential to equip VET students with foundational and digital skills to ensure they remain employable as technologies evolve.
• Addressing gender stereotypes both in terms of imbalances within the enrolments to VET pathways and eventually within the employment in VET occupations, is seen as a vital strategy to expand the talent pool.
• VET is highly effective at delivering transferable skills. The labour market values the VET practical competences even if the graduate works outside their original field of study.
   

Policy pointers

Addressing VET shortages requires coordinated action at EU and national levels. Key priorities include:

• enhancing the attractiveness and quality of VET pathways
• improving working conditions and job quality in shortage occupations
• expanding training capacity by tackling teacher shortages
• strengthening sector - VET collaboration to align curricula with labour market needs
• promoting gender balance and inclusion of underrepresented groups
• modernising skills recognition and portability systems
• embedding digital and AI-related competences across VET programmes