Machine and plant operators: skills opportunities and challenges (2023 update)

Summary

European manufacturing accounted in 2021 for more than 16 per cent of gross value added in the EU economy. Machine and plant operators, who mainly work in the manufacturing sector, account for around 2.5 per cent of all employment in the EU. These workers frequently operate heavy machinery (e.g., excavators, drillers, and metal rolling mills) in various construction and manufacturing sites. This machinery is used, for example, in constructing metal, wood, paper, leather, textiles, and related products, drilling in mines, and conducting several tasks on construction sites. Jobs within this group include drillers, stone planners, metal rolling mill operators, rust proofers, motion picture film developers, perfume production, textile production, rubber cutting, cocoa mill, paper packing machine operators, and pulp technicians.

Key facts

• Around 5 million people were employed as machine and plant operators in 2022, which accounted for 2.5 per cent of total 2022 EU employment. 
• Between 2012 and 2022 employment for machine and plant operators stayed mor or less stable. In the same period employment across all occupations in the EU increased by almost eight per cent.
• Between 2019 and 2020, when many EU economic sectors, such as manufacturing and construction, experienced lockdowns,125 thousand machine and plant operator jobs were lost. By the end of 2022, employment had declined more and was 74 thousand workers short of the pre Covid-19 level.
• Most machine and plant operators – 81 per cent in 2021 - are employed in the manufacturing sector. In 2021, they also accounted for 25 per cent of employment in the mining and quarrying sector.
• Nearly two thirds of machine and plant operators (64 per cent) have obtained a qualification level ISCED 3 (i.e. upper secondary education) and 4 (i.e. post-secondary non-tertiary education) in 2021 . The qualification level of the occupation is not expected to change over the period to 2035.
• Machine and plant operators are mainly men (more than 66 per cent in 2021)
• The employment of machine and plant operators is projected to remain stable between 2022 and 2035. Over the same period, overall employment is forecast to increase slightly. 
• By 2035, the employment of machine and plant operators shall decrease by less than 50 thousand jobs. Despite this, there will be a large number of machine and plant operator jobs to be filled in over the same period. This is because an estimated 2.6 million people are expected to leave the occupation, mainly due to retirement. Considering also the job loss, this means that an estimated 2.5 million job openings will need to be filled between 2022 and 2035. 
• Technological advances giving rise to a generation of “Smart Operators” in manufacturing industries and requirements for greater sustainability (for example through changing the equipment being used and increasing waste management and recycling) will drive changes in the future required skills of machine and plant operators.
   

Employment and job demand

Employment trends for stationary machine and plant operators were similar to all plant and machine operator and assembler jobs in the past decade, with the exception that the Covid-19 induced employment drop was a bit milder, and the following recovery a bit slower.

Figure 1: Year-to-year employment change for machine and plant operators (2013-2022)

Source: European Labour Force Survey. Employed persons by detailed occupation (ISCO-08 two digit level) [LFSA_EGAI2D__custom_7778289]. Own calculations.

Machine and plant operators is a rather wide occupation, covering many different jobs in various areas of manufacturing, mining but also construction. Around a quarter of machine and plant operators (23 per cent) are engaged as other stationary plant and machine operators. These include people operating machinery to produce glass and ceramic products, workers operating bottling, labeling, and packing machinery, boilers, and steam engines.

Overall, 15 per cent of machine and plant operators are engaged as textile, fur, and leather products machine operators. They monitor and operate machinery used to prepare, process, and treat various forms of fabric and related material (fibers, yarn, thread, leather, or fur). They use the machinery to produce, modify, and repair footwear and garments and manufacture or dry clean textiles and fur.

Around 14 per cent of machine and plant operators are engaged as rubber, plastic, and paper products machine operators. These are engaged in monitoring and operating machinery and equipment that processes rubber and rubber compounds to produce a variety of products from natural and synthetic rubber, plastics, and paper.

About 12 per cent of machine and plant operators are engaged as food and related products machine operators. People employed in these jobs operate and monitor machinery used to prepare food products. This involves preparing meat, baking bread, and flour confectionery products, producing liquor and dairy products, and also tobacco products.

Around 10 per cent of machine and plant operators are engaged as metal processing and finishing plant operators, who monitor and operate single-function process control machinery and equipment to control the conversion, processing, and finishing of mineral ores and metals. They set up and monitor the operation of machinery, check equipment for malfunctions, and also carry out routine operating tests.

Overall, 9 per cent of machine and plant operators are engaged as chemical and photographic products plant and machine operators. These workers monitor and operate chemical processing machinery that is used to produce, among others, pharmaceutical and toiletry products, explosives, and photographic or other chemical products. 

A limited share of machine and plant operator(i.e. 6 per cent) is engaged as mining and mineral processing plant operators. These workers are frequently employed in mining and construction sites. They monitor and operate plant and machinery or hand tools to extract and process rocks, minerals, and stone, drill wells and bores, and manufacture and finish cement and stone products.

A small share of machine and plant operators (5 per cent) is also engaged as wood processing and papermaking plant operators. These workers operate and control machinery to saw wood, cut veneer, make plywood, produce pulp and paper, and to otherwise prepare wood, pulp, and paper for further use.

Between 2016 and 2021, some of the more detailed occupations gained more importance within the plant and machine operators' group. The employment shares slightly grew for rubber, plastic and paper machine operators, as well as for metal and chemical processing machine operators. The share of other groups either remained stable, or declined a bit.

Figure 2: Employment in machine and plant operator jobs (in %)

Source: European Labour Force Survey. Microdata. Own calculations.

The "other stationary plant and machine operators", in other words those producing glass and ceramic products, workers operating bottling, labeling and packing machinery, boilers, and steam engines - are the most important both in employment and online job advertisement share, followed by food and related products machine operators, and wood processing and papermaking plant operators. 

For more details on skills demand and job openings for this occupation,  please access the Cedefop’s Skills OVATE tool.

Figure 3: Online job advertisements for machine and plant operators (2022, in %)

Source: Skills in Online Job Advertisements indicator based on Cedefop’s Skills OVATE. Own calculations. Note: Online job advertisements are by definition not equivalent to job vacancies. See Beręsewicz (2021) or Napierala et al. (2022).

The manufacturing sector employs the majority of machine and plant operators. In 2016, 79 per cent of machine and plant operators were employed in the manufacturing sector. This had increased to 81 per cent in 2021 (see Figure 4). The remaining 19 per cent of machine and plant operator employment is distributed across various sectors. 

Figure 4: The top sectors employing  machine and plant operators (in %)

Source: European Labour Force Survey. Microdata. Own calculations.

As regards the share of machine and plant operators within sectoral employment, these workers form a significant portion of the workforce in the mining and quarrying sector. In 2021, machine and plant operators constituted the largest occupation within this sector, accounting for more than 25 per cent of its employment.

The share of employment in each country varies, with countries in central and eastern Europe - Bulgaria, Hungary, Slovakia, Czechia, Romania and Croatia having the highest shares (Figure 5). 

Figure 5: Machine and plant operators as a share of overall country employment (2021, in %)

Source: European Labour Force Survey. Microdata. Own calculations.
Note: Data for CY, EE, IS, LV and LU have lower reliability because of small sample size. LFS data for MT are not available. 

The workforce is composed mainly of men. In 2016, 66 per cent of machine and plant operators were men compared to 54 per cent in the economy as a whole. These shares had remained stable by 2021.

The age distribution of machine and plant operators is very similar to that of overall employment (Figure 6). In 2021, the share of machine and plant operators aged 25 to 49 years was 58 per cent, while the share across all occupations was 57 per cent. On the contrary much less machine and plant operators appear to be still in employment after the age of 65 compared to the share across all occupations (1 per cent versus 4.7 per cent).

Figure 6: Machine and plant operators’ workforce by age (in %)

Source: European Labour Force Survey. Microdata. Own calculations.

The share of machine and plant operators employed in involuntary temporary employment is more widespread among machine and plant operators than across all occupations (see Figure 7). 

Figure 7: Contract and hiring trends for machine and plant operators (in %)

Source: European Labour Force Survey. Microdata. Own calculations.

Skill needs and future trends

Most of machine and plant operators work in manufacturing, or in mining and quarrying sector, where the tasks often involve working in hazardous environment and lifting heavy loads. It is also an environment where there is so far a limited space for use of digital technologies, as it is apparent from Figure 8. Despite being perceived as jobs with many repetitive and routine tasks, machine and plant operators report relatively high upskilling needs, but also access to necessary training. 

Figure 8: Skills, training needs and job perception of machine and plant operators (in %)

Source: European Skills and Jobs Survey. Microdata. Own calculations. 
Unless stated otherwise, it is a share of people reporting that a task/skill is part of their job. *Always or often ** Share of workers reporting these needs to a great or moderate extent.

Cedefop’s Skills forecast provides a detailed view of the future demand for machine and plant operators. Overall, employment for machine and plant workers is expected to decline slightly (by about 1 per cent) over the period 2022 to 2035. This means that, compared to 2022, there will be about 47 thousand less machine and plant operator jobs.

Future employment change will however vary country by country. Figure 9 compares the employment growth experienced over the relatively recent past to that projected to take place in the future. Employment in nine countries grew in the past decade and it is forecast to do so in the next decade as well. Ireland and Cyprus are among those with highest past and expected future growths, while especially Sweden and Norway represent the opposite trend.

Figure 9: Past and expected future employment trend of machine and plant operators

Source: European Labour Force Survey. Microdata. Cedefop Skills Forecast. Note: Data for CY, EE, IS, LV and LU have lower reliability because of the small sample size. LFS data for MT are not available. 

New job creation or destruction is, however, not the main driver behind the job demand. Most of the job openings are a result of people leaving them for other opportunities, or those leaving the labour market completely (retirements; parent leave, etc.). This replacement demand is much more substantial, and in the case of the machine and plant operators it exceeds the projected job loss 54 times, being estimated at 2.6 million (Figure 10). 

Overall, when the expansion demand is added to the replacement demand, an estimated 2.5 million job openings for machine and plant operators will need to be filled in between 2022 and 2035.

Figure 10: Future job openings for machine and plant operators (000s)

Source: Future job openings indicator based on the Cedefop Skills forecast. Own calculations.

More than 64 per cent of machine and plant operators held medium-level qualifications in 2021 (i.e. at ISCED levels 3 or 4). This is not projected to change much by 2035. The share of workers with low levels of qualification (ISCED level 2 or lower) is projected to decrease by 11 percentage points from 2022 to 2035, while the share of highly qualified workers (i.e. those qualified at ISCED level 5 and over) is projected to increase by 5 percentage points over the same period.  

Looking forward

Technological developments -including digitalisation- will continue to influence the future of skills for machine and plan operators. As most of these workers (81 per cent in 2021, see previous sections) work in the manufacturing sector, the impact of the twin digital and green transitions on the production processes will affect the future skillset of these workers.

• Technological advances in manufacturing industries are gradually developing what is referred to as the generation of Smart Operators 4.0 – an intelligent and qualified workforce that is able to perform the work with the support of machines, interact with collaborative systems, and use technologies such as wearable devices and virtual/augmented reality (Di Pasquale et al, 2021). New manufacturing technologies, such as Internet of Things (IoT), artificial intelligence (AI), and robotics provide industrial actors and sectors with connectivity, networked entities, real-time data, and pervasive information (Santos et al, 2017).  Machine operators will have to work with more complex machinery and digital systems in the future – for instance, they may need to programme, maintain, and troubleshoot equipment that requires advanced technical competences. They will also need digital literacy to understand and operate tools related to machine learning, and cloud computing (European Union, 2020). Robotics will continue to be part of everyday tasks in manufacturing – especially those involving tedious, unergonomic work (e.g. lifting and holding heavy parts, performing repetitive tasks that require high degrees of precision). Operators will continue to learn to programme and supervise these robots and greater attention will be given to human/soft/transversal skills, such as problem solving, critical thinking and people management (International Federation of Robotics, 2021).
• The European industrial sector is among those directly targeted by the European Green Deal (EGD) (2019) in its efforts to decarbonise economic activity and promote sustainable production and consumption. For instance, with the transition to low-carbon production, the EGD aims for the manufacturing sector to adopt cleaner technologies and processes with lower rates of emissions production, which machine operators will need to adjust to. For example, machine and plant operators in the energy-intensive steel industry will require reskilling because of the proposed changes to energy use in steel production, which will require them to handle new equipment. The Clean Steel Partnership will support developing climate-neutral solutions to the sectoral decarbonisation goal of reducing CO2 emissions by 80-95 per cent in 2050, compared to the 1990 levels. This is pursued through the gradual replacement of coal by hydrogen as an energy source, which entails the implementation of new methods and technologies (Kurrer, 2020).
• Machine and plant operators working in the packing, bottling and labelling area will be impacted by the new rules to cut down on waste. The main objectives of the new EU legislation on packaging and packaging of waste is to prevent the generation of waste (by promoting reusable solutions and reducing unnecessary packaging), to boost closed loop recycling (making all packaging in the EU market recyclable by 2030), and increase the use of recycled plastics (European Commission, 2022a). Packaging, bottling and labelling machine operators can expect to upskill and learn about new materials, for instance, such as those addressed by the EU policy framework on biobased, biodegradable and compostable plastics (European Commission, 2022b). Ensuring sustainability in the packaging industry requires consideration of the raw materials used, innovation in materials science, changes to product design, circularity of the supply chain, product life extension and data sharing. European countries are also gradually implementing bottle deposit schemes, which have proven successful in Germany and Scandinavia (Keating, 2021). For machine and plant operators in the field this implies innovations in materials they work with, and new standards for labelling.
• Reducing emissions in sectors like manufacturing and construction entails an increased use of renewable energy – this will require manufacturing plants to shift to new resources such as wind, hydro and solar power in their operations. In the light of the Russian war against Ukraine and the resulting energy crisis, the REPowerEU Plan unveiled in 2022 aims to further encourage and speed up the uptake of renewables. This includes support for innovative clean tech manufacturing (e.g. electrolysers and fuel cells, innovative renewable equipment, energy storage or heat pumps). This will affect the future skillsets of machine operators to the extent that it affects the way their machines will be operating and their maintenance needs.
• Circularity is promoted through the EGD via the Circular Economy Action Plan (2020), which fosters certain sustainability principles on production processes. These include, among others, remanufacturing, high-quality recycling, and improving product durability and reusability. Such plans will to some extent change the everyday workload of machine and plant operators and affect their future skillsets. For example, the future work environment of machine and plant operators in the textiles industry will be shaped by the aims of the EU Strategy for Sustainable and Circular Textiles (2022), which seeks to increase the use of recycled fibres and recued that of hazardous substances in European-made textiles, to increase the products’ lifetime, and to encourage producers to take on more responsibility for ensuring circularity (for instance, by engaging in more repairing and recycling).

A large majority of machine and plant operators have a medium level of education. According to Cedefop in 2019 and 2020, 67 per cent of machine and plant operators aged 15-34 reported possession of a vocational qualification. The initial professional education of these workers often encompasses certified on-the-job training such as apprenticeships, whereas in the light of the digital and green transitions, continuous training will gain even greater importance.

In many countries, apprenticeships usually provide the training required to operate various means of plant machinery. The effectiveness with which apprenticeships can equip young workers with the skills required in the labour market is nowadays widely acknowledged and demonstrated (cee, for example, Cedefop’s research on the effective delivery of apprenticeships). Apprenticeships for machine and plant operators can be completed through in-house training programmes at companies as well as through sectoral international skills alliances. For example, the apprenticeship for machine and plant operators (ausbildung zum maschinen- und anlagenführer) at Kaufland takes two years to complete. The training in the foodstuffs department entails working with modern technology and equipment as well as applying high hygiene standards. For instance, apprentices will learn to prepare work processes as well as to maintain and operate machines for production. Normally, the apprentices are hired upon completion of the training programme, and will benefit from numerous professional development opportunities. The European Alliance for Apprenticeships provides support to countries and sectors looking to improve and expand the provision of apprenticeships.

Similarly, the machine operator apprenticeship at Volvo Construction Equipment will integrate theory and practice in a training  programme that teaches safe operating techniques, how to minimise the wear and damage of machinery and increase the efficiency of operations. The students begin training in the classroom with discussions and presentations on the role of the operator, worksite safety, introduction to machinery and best operating practices. Added to that, students have the chance to apply the knowledge on the field. Thisthis includes familiarisation with the machine and in depth working through the functions and tasks of the machines.

There are also cross-country sectoral skills councils that offer certification in machine operations. For example, the European Forestry and Environmental Skills Council (EFESC) is an organisation composed of forestry industry representatives and organisations founded with the aim of sectoral skills harmonisation and cross-European standardisation. EFESC has developed the European Chainsaw Certificate, which sets standard on five progressive levels of skills competence in chainsaw use, from chainsaw maintenance and crosscutting (ESC 1) to chainsaw use at height (ECS Height). Another transnational skills alliance, PACKALL, connects academic and industrial stakeholders from Spain, Poland, Finland and Italy to foster collaboration for innovation and competence building in innovative and sustainable packaging. The project developed a certified training programme (30 ECTS) ‘Specialist in the circular economy of plastic packaging’, which was broadly addressed to industry professionals. Machine and plant operators in packaging could increase their knowledge on circularity on the five thematic modules of the course: New materials and biomaterials, Eco-design and novel manufacturing processing, Residue management and valorisation, Citizen and consumer engagement, and Challenge-based collaborative practice.

Additionally, considering the rapid pace of digital and green developments, machine and plant operators are bound to complement and upgrade their existing skillsets throughout their careers. The Blueprint skills alliances bring together sectoral stakeholders in devising common skills development strategies. For instance, the Construction Blueprint has identified a holistic approach to developing a variety of skills in the construction industry – their online course catalogue covers topics like Energy Efficiency, Circular Economy, and Digitalisation. Similarly, the Skills4SmartTCLF (Textile, Clothing, Leather, and Footwear) blueprint sought to develop a future-proof skills strategy for the industry. Part of the project outcomes was the development of eight MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses) some of which may be of interest to machine operators for upskilling, for example: Textile Technology, Footwear CAD Designing and Pattern Making, Leather Technology, Sustainability, Production Timeline Analysis.

How to cite this publication:

Cedefop (2023). Machine and plant operators: skills opportunities and challenges. Skills intelligence data insight.

Further reading

Beręsewicz, M. and Pater, R. (2021). Inferring job vacancies from online job advertisements, Luxembourg: Publications Office, 2021. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-statistical-working-papers/-/ks-tc-20-008

Di Pasquale, V., De Simone, V., Miranda, S., Riemma, S. (2021), ‘Smart operators: How industry 4.0 is affecting the worker’s performance in manufacturing contexts’, Procedia Computer Science, Vol. 180, pp. 958-967

European Commission (2020). A New Industrial Strategy for Europe. COM(2020) 102 final

European Commission (2020a). A new Circular Economy Action Plan. COM(2020) 98 final

European Commission (2022a). Proposal for a regulation on packaging and packaging waste. COM(2022) 677 final

European Commission (2022b). EU policy framework on biobased, biodegradable, and compostable plastics. COM(2022) 682 final

European Commission (2022c). EU Strategy for Sustainable and Circular Textiles. COM(2022) 141 final

European Union (2020). ‘Skills for industry curriculum guidelines 4.0: Future-proof education and training for manufacturing in Europe: final report’,  Publications Office of the EU: Luxembourg

International Federation of Robotics (2021). ‘Up-skilling today and tomorrow’s workforce for automation’, in IFR Secretariat Blog, published 5 January 2021

Keating, D. (2021). ‘Germany’s pioneering bottle deposit scheme has lessons for the EU’, in EURACTIV, article, published 7 June 2021

Kurrer, C. (2020). ‘The potential of hydrogen for decarbonising steel production’. European Parliamentary Research Service, published December 2020

Napierala, J.; Kvetan, V. and Branka, J. (2022). Assessing the representativeness of online job advertisements. Luxembourg: Publications Office. Cedefop working paper, No 17. http://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2801/807500

Santos, C., Mehrsai, A., Barros, A.C., Araujo, M., Ares, E. (2017). ‘Towards Industry 4.0: an overview of European strategic roadmaps’, in Procedia Manufacturing, Vol. 13, pp. 972-979

WEF, (2020). ‘Share to Gain: Unlocking Data Value in Manufacturing’, World Economic Forum in collaboration with Boston Consulting Group, white paper, January 2020