Vocational education and training in Europe | Hungary

General themes

Summary of main elements ( 1 )

The Ministry of Innovation and Technology is responsible for the governance of VET and adult learning (AL); as of 2019 this also includes vocational qualification curricula in higher education. Coordination and policy implementation are ensured by the National Office for VET and Adult Learning and, since 2019, also by the Innovative Training Support Centre.

The National Office of VET and Adult Learning (NOVETAL) and the IKK Innovative Training Support Centre Plc. (IKK) ( 2 ), as VET State administrative bodies, supervised by the Ministry of Innovation and Technology, support the implementation of VET policy developments.

Social partners shape VET policy through participation in advisory bodies. The VET Innovation Council (a discussion forum for education and training providers, chambers, employers and trade unions) and sector skills councils shape proposals for aligning VET programmes and qualifications with labour market needs. The Chamber of Commerce and Industry is responsible for the registration and attestation of apprenticeship placements.

VET for young people

VET is available from age 14 (or 15), after completion of lower secondary education, offering several options:

5-year technological programmes (technikum, ISCED 344-454) combining general subjects and sectoral basic education (common contents of vocational training affiliated to the same economic sector) in grades 9 and 10 and vocational specialisation in grades 11 to 13. Learners acquire the upper secondary school leaving certificate (EQF level 4) giving access to HE, and a technician diploma (EQF level 5);
3-year vocational school (Szakképző Iskola, ISCED 353) programmes/ practice-oriented VET programmes, provide general and vocational (sectoral foundation) education in grade 9, followed by vocational specialisation (grades 10 and 11). Learners acquire an EQF level 4 vocational qualification entitling holders to perform a vocational occupation. Graduates may enrol in a 2-year follow up programme in a technicum to obtain the secondary school leaving certificate;
at the end of the ninth grade there is permeability between these two VET tracks, without any aptitude test. Skills acquired during the sectoral foundation year(s) are assessed before moving on to specialised vocational training. General upper secondary graduates may also enrol in any of the two above mentioned VET tracks, without general subjects, and they can acquire a vocational qualification in 2 years;
2- to 4-year special vocational school programmes for special education need (SEN) learners (szakiskola ISCED 343, 352, 353) provide VET, based on special framework curricula issued by the Minister for Education to acquire a partial or full vocational qualification;
holders of the secondary school leaving certificate (graduates of upper secondary programmes) if they already have a technician diploma in the same sector may enrol in 1-2-year post-secondary (ISCED 454) programmes (in the VET years of technicums: school-based practice-oriented programmes) and their prior acquired knowledge is taken into account, and/or in 2-year higher VET programmes (ISCED 554) of higher education institutions. In both programmes, learners acquire an EQF level 5 VET qualification and may transfer credits to a bachelor (BA/BSc) programme in the same field. They can also start over and learn another ISCED level 353 vocational occupation taught in a vocational school (practice-oriented VET programmes).

Work-based learning (WBL) is delivered in school-settings or through a practical training placement in companies. In contrast to the phasing out of apprenticeship contracts, since 2020/21, learners may conclude vocational employment contracts to follow both (specialised vocational) theory and practice in companies.

After completion of lower secondary education, those unsure of which pathway to follow can enrol in a 1-year (optional) career orientation development programme.

Learners unable to finish lower secondary education by the age of 16 can enrol in a basic competences development programme (Dobbantó), followed by a catch-up programme delivered in school workshops/catch-up programme (műhelyiskola program) to acquire the school leaving certificate attesting to completion of lower secondary school and an EQF level 2 or 3 partial qualification.

The formal system is centrally governed. VET schools (363 in 2021) are affiliated to 41 VET centres with modern digital infrastructure. In the school year 2020/21, 54% of the total upper secondary population has enrolled in VET programmes. For the school year 2020/21 - compared to the former year - the number of students enrolled in VET increased on average by 10%. 61% of the students applying for upper secondary programmes have been admitted to a VET institution, out of which 41% of the learners were enrolled in technological programmes (TechniKum).

VET for adults

Adults may acquire up to two vocational qualifications free of charge in formal VET programmes and a short-cycle vocational training within the framework of vocational training. Legislation in force since 2021 (VET Act of 2019 and Adult Training Act of 2020) aims to reform the adult training provided outside the school system and to improve its quality and flexibility by end of 2022. The State provides financial support for the training of vulnerable groups and SMEs.

Distinctive features ( 3 )

Following job analysis, the national vocational qualifications register (OKJ) was revised in 2019. The new register (Szak majegyzék) lists a reduced number of qualifications aligned with the needs of the economy in the different sectors. Qualifications entitle holders to practise the occupation (HuQF ( 4 )/ EQF levels 4 and 5) specified in respective training and learning outcomes' requirements set in the register. Qualification requirements, programme curricula and local (practical training) curriculum have been shaped based on a learning outcomes approach. Former VET qualification programmes (OKJ) are being phased out.

Young people and adults need to pass a final examination upon completion of a formal VET programme. Currently a system of accredited vocational examination centres is being established and should be operational by 2025.

The general VET scholarship scheme is accessible by all VET learners in upper secondary schools (including during practical training periods delivered in school workshops). Learners in company placements under a vocational employment contract (szakképzési munkaszerződés) receive remuneration (60% of the minimum wage or more, depending on performance). A career starter allowance in one lump sum is given on completion of the first vocational qualification (EUR 420 to 840 depending on the results of the exam). Business organisations can compensate (reduce) the obligatory vocational contribution by providing dual VET (theory and/or practice).

Hungary has high shares of dropout rates, especially for men in VET; the share of upper secondary learners with low basic skills is still below the EU 2020 benchmark. Measures to tackle early leaving include the introduction (2020) of an early warning system in the Public Education Registration and Study Core System (KRÉTA) to detect learners most at risk and inform school administration.

The previous bridging programmes were replaced as of 2020/21 by new types of skills development and career orientation development programmes:

A basic competences development programme, the Springboard School Class (Dobbantó), targets young people over 16 (without an upper age limit) with behavioural and learning disorders, or who have already dropped out of education and training or are about to leave the system, to get them stay in education and training. The programmes are offered in vocational schools, enabling them to find the best way to return to the school system and to move on towards acquiring at least a partial vocational qualification in a school workshop/catch up programme (műhelyiskola).

The optional career orientation development year has been introduced since school year 2020/21 in order to allow learners who completed lower secondary education with lack of competences, to receive personalised support and career guidance for further VET studies.

The adoption of the VET Act of 2019 ( 5 ) (in force since 2020) introduced a learning outcomes' approach with less prescriptive programme implementation and more freedom for VET institutions ( 6 ) to shape implementation. It allows delivery of both theoretical and practical vocational training in companies upon completion of the sectoral basic examination. The dual training form remained in place, with a prominent change in the approach and methodology of content regulation.

In contrast to adult education, the challenge remains to attract young learners to upper secondary VET ( 7 ).

Demographics

Population in 2020: 9 769 526 ( 8 )

The population has been decreasing in recent decades due to low birth rates and relatively high mortality rates. It fell by 0.9% since 2015 ( 9 ).

The population is also ageing.

The old-age-dependency ratio is expected to increase from 31 in 2021 to 52 in 2070 ( 10 ).

Population forecast by age group and old-age-dependency ratio

Source: Eurostat, proj_19ndbi [Extracted on 7.5.2021].

According to latest available national statistics ( 11 ), the number of young people under 15 is stagnant, the number of people in the age range 15-64 is falling, while the number of people aged 65+ is on the rise.

An increasing share of people over the age of 50 in the working-age population coincides with a declining number of school-age learners (see figure below). This indicates a further fall in learners in initial vocational education and training (IVET) and an increasing demand for continuing vocational education and training (CVET) and other forms of adult learning.

Learners in initial education and training (aged 3-22)( 12 ), 2009-2020

Source: Hungarian Central Statistics Office, Társadalmi Haladás Mutatószám rendszere (System of Indicators of Social Development) http://www.ksh.hu/thm/2/indi2_2_1.html

In the 2016 micro census, 98.3% of the people declared themselves Hungarian by nationality, while 6.4% identified themselves as a member of one of the minority groups (Roma, German, Croat, Slovak, etc.). The largest minority group continues to be the Roma ( 13 ). Minority groups in Hungary have a younger age structure than the total population. Amongst them the Roma are the youngest ( 14 ). The vast majority of Roma learners continue their studies after completing primary school (integrated primary and lower secondary education) in VET at upper secondary level, but almost half of them leave upper secondary education without any qualification. More than half of those who finish secondary school obtain an EQF level 3 qualification and less than a fifth acquire the secondary school leaving certificate. Amongst non-Roma students, the proportions are reversed: less than one fifth obtain EQF level 3 qualification and nearly half of them obtain secondary school leaving certificate ( 15 ).

The high drop-out rate among Roma learners can be explained mostly by their socially disadvantaged background and their competence deficiencies accumulated during their prior schooling. Roma learners and adults are therefore prioritised for receiving public scholarships and support in labour market programmes.

Economics

The economy is small and open.

Small-sized enterprises are 99.3 % of all enterprises. The share of micro enterprises among them was 96.1% in 2019. Only 0.6% of all enterprises are medium-sized and 0.1% are large enterprises ( 16 ).

Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) employed 65% of the workforce ( 17 ) and produced 44.6% of gross value added (GVA) in 2019 ( 18 ).

In 2020, the country's GDP decreased by 4.7 percent. The set-back in the economy was mainly due to the decline in the service sector due to coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic.

Services produced 66.7% of the total gross value added (GVA) in 2019 and employed 63.6% of the workforce. Industry had a share of 23.6% of GVA and employed 31.7% of the workforce.

The construction industry and agriculture produced 5.7% and 3.9% of total gross value added and had shares of 7.9% and 4.6% of total employment, respectively ( 19 ).

The main export industries (by 2020 turnover) of the Hungarian economy with a dominance of large enterprises are ( 20 ):

road vehicles;
electrical and electronic equipment;
communication engineering equipment (sound recording and playback devices);
pharmaceutical products.

Labour market

The labour market is highly regulated. A list with all 417 regulated professions in Hungary is available at the European database of regulated professions ( 21 ).

In 2018, total unemployment ( 22 ) in Hungary was 3.6% (6.2% in the EU-27); it decreased by 0.9 percentage points since 2016 ( 23 ).

Unemployment rate (aged 15-24 and 25-64) by education attainment level in 2010-20

NB: Data based on ISCED 2011; breaks in time series; low reliability for ISCED 5-8, age 15-24.
ISCED 0-2 = less than primary, primary and lower secondary education.
ISCED 3-4 = upper secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary education.
ISCED 5-8 = tertiary education.
Source: Eurostat, lfsa_urgaed [extracted 06.05.2021].

Unemployment has fallen across most of the last decade, the exception being the 2020 increase, which was probably the effect of the pandemic. The unemployment rate of unskilled workers, although decreasing steadily from 2014 to 2019, is considerably higher compared to the share of people with medium- and high-level qualifications.

The employment rate of 20 to 34-year-old VET graduates (all ISCED levels) has decreased by 0.3 percentage points from 76.8% in 2016 to 76.5% in 2020 ( 24 ).

Employment rate of VET graduates (20 to 34 years old, ISCED levels 3 and 4)

NB: Data based on ISCED 2011; breaks in time series.
ISCED 3-4 = upper secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary education.
Source: Eurostat, edat_lfse_24 [extracted 06.05.2021].

The employment rate of VET graduates aged 20 to 34 (ISCED levels 3 and 4) decreased by 0.9 percentage points from 2016 to 2020; this is higher than the fall in employment of all ISCED level graduates aged 20 to 34 (0.3%) in the same period in Hungary ( 25 ).

VET learners by level

Share of learners in VET by level in 2019

lower secondary	upper secondary	post-secondary
0.1%	44%	100%

Source: Eurostat, educ_uoe_enrs01, educ_uoe_enrs04 and educ_uoe_enrs07 [extracted 06.05.2021].

The share of learners in lower secondary VET decreased by 0.8 percentage points from 2015 to 2019. In the same period, the share of learners in upper secondary VET increased by 20.8 percentage points.

Share of initial VET learners from total learners at upper-secondary level (ISCED level 3), 2019

NB: Data based on ISCED 2011.
Source: Eurostat, educ_uoe_enrs04 [extracted 6.5.2021].

Early leavers from education and training

The share of early leavers from education and training has increased by 0.7 percentage points, from 11.4% in 2011 to 12.1% in 2020. It is above the national target for 2020 of not more than 10% and the EU-27 average of 10.2%.

Early leavers from education and training in 2011-20

NB: Share of the population aged 18 to 24 with at most lower secondary education and not in further education or training.
Source: Eurostat, edat_lfse_14 [extracted 6.5.2021] and European Commission, https://ec.europa.eu/info/2018-european-semester-national-reform-progra… [accessed on 14.11.2018].

Reducing the high number of drop-outs from VET is a national challenge. Early leaving from education and training can be explained mainly by learners' disadvantaged socio-economic backgrounds and low basic skills (due to quality problems with primary school education provision) and the inability of VET schools to compensate these disadvantages ( 28 ).

Some policy reforms have been developed as a reaction to this problem. For example, the ESL programme module functions as an early warning system, continuously monitoring the performance of the students based on their academic achievements and on justified and unjustified absences. If the performance of a student has started to worsen, and the number of unjustified absences has started to increase, the ESL module sends an automatic message to the student's parents and informs the headmaster. The ESL programme module presents the academic achievement of each student in detail, broken down by subjects and months. Currently, the programme is available only in IVET schools.

More information on early leaving from E&T in Hungary ( 29 ).

Participation in lifelong learning

Adult participation in lifelong learning (aged 25-64) is being promoted in Hungary, with a special focus on early leavers and people without a VET qualification.

Participation in lifelong learning in 2009-20

NB: Share of adult population aged 25 to 64 participating in education and training; break in series.
Source: Eurostat, trng_lfse_01 [extracted 6.5.2021].

Participation in lifelong learning increased by 2.1 percentage points since 2009 (from 3% in 2009 to 5.1% in 2020) but remains below the EU-27 average (10.8% in 2020). However, this increase is due primarily to a break in the series of statistical data: in 2015, additional clarifications and reminders were added to the Hungarian survey for better coverage of compulsory training systems and introduction courses for those who started their job recently ( 30 ).

VET learners by age

School-based VET learners by age group (2017-21)

Source: OSAP 1410, 2536 https://statisztika.mer.gov.hu/

The initial education and training system comprises:

pre-primary (ISCED level 0);
integrated primary and lower secondary (ISCED levels 1 and 2);
integrated lower and upper secondary general education (ISCED levels 2-3);
flexible learning pathways (ISCED levels 2-3)
upper secondary general, vocational or combined education (ISCED levels 3-4);
post-secondary non-tertiary VET (ISCED level 4);
higher education VET (ISCED level 5);
higher education (ISCED levels 6,7 and 8).

The term 'public education' (köznevelés) ( 31 ) refers to the right to education for all from pre-primary to post‑secondary non-tertiary level and includes general and vocational education programmes in kindergartens and schools ( 32 ).

Compulsory schooling covers age 3 to 16. Education is free of charge up to achieving:

the upper secondary school leaving certificate in general education;
or the technician diploma or the vocational school leaving certificate and/or two ( 33 ) vocational qualifications in vocational education (listed in Szak majegyzék)and a short-cycle vocational qualification in adult education.

Pre-primary education is provided in kindergarten (óvoda) from age 3 to 6 ( 34 ). It is followed by an integrated primary and lower secondary 8-year programme (általános iskola; age 7-14) ( 35 ). To move on to upper secondary education, learners must complete the programme and obtain the primary school certificate.

For learners at risk of dropping out from education, the VET Act of 2019 introduced three new flexible learning pathways:

the career orientation development year (Orientációs évfolyam): a preparatory year of career orientation development, which is addressed to those young people who are uncertain in their career choice or who finished their primary school with lack of competences. Its aim is not to repeat the primary school curriculum but, based on the assessment of the student competences, to deepen their self-knowledge and provide career orientation and guidance. The condition for the students to entry upper secondary VET programmes is to possess those basic competences which are needed to obtain a vocational qualification.

the Springboard school class programme (Dobbantó program): basic competence development programme to offer possibilities for young people above the age of 16 without any basic education attainment and with behaviour and learning disorders, or who have already dropped out of education and training or are about to leave the system, to reintegrate into education and training. The programme enables them to find the best way to return to the school system or to the world of work and to move on toward a successful individual career.
the Catch-up programme/School workshop/catch-up programme (Műhelyiskola program): this prepares students for obtaining a partial vocational qualification. It has to be organised in practical workshops or in-company work placements in formal education, in small groups. The duration of acquiring a partial qualification is minimum 6 months and maximum 24 months with no regard to the school year schedule. There are no general subjects. All knowledge is related to the partial qualifications acquired by the student via his/her vocational teacher (master). There are also teachers supporting students as mentors up to 1 day a week.

The programme can involve those young people who:

did not finish their basic education and have finished the basic competences development Springboard programme;
or have finished their basic education and are older than 16.

A new certified technician programme/diploma has been created and is available from the school year 2021/22. It is prepared jointly by a technicum secondary school and a higher education institution based on a cooperation agreement and is delivered in the last 3 years (specialised vocational subjects) of the 5-year technicum programme to those learners who have successfully completed the first 2-year cycle and passed the basic sectoral exam. Holders of the certified technician qualification may have their learning recognised when enrolling in higher education vocational programmes (in the same higher education institution, or a different one), thus shortening the duration of the HE programme. Learners following the specialisation years of the technicum programme in dual training (with a vocational employment contract with a company) may continue with the same company when following up vocational studies in a higher education institution. The certified technician programme is planned to be delivered in 2021/22 school year in 27 IVET institutions affiliated to 16 VET centres, especially in the fields of engineering, information technology and economics.

Upper secondary general education is provided in the so-called gimnázium (age 14-18). To move on to higher level studies, learners must obtain the (upper) secondary school leaving certificate (érettségi bizonyítvány) through the secondary school leaving exam at the end of grade 12.

Higher education ( 36 ) includes academic programmes at EQF levels 6-8. Vocational programmes are offered in higher education at EQF level 5 but are not considered VET ( 37 ).

Adult education programmes (felnőttoktatás) offer general and vocational education at all education levels in flexible learning forms ( 38 ).

Government-regulated VET is offered:

within the formal school system (participants can have the legal status of student or adult):
- in VET schools, regulated by the 2011 Public Education Act ( 39 ) and 2019 VET ( 40 ) Act. Programmes are offered at EQF levels 2 to 5, either:
  - in regular full-time education for school-age learners and young people up to age 25;
  - or in flexible learning forms for those over the compulsory schooling age (16) and older adults in adult education ( 41 );

in higher education, regulated by the 2011 Higher Education Act ( 42 ). Following the introduction of the 2011 VET act ( 43 ), EQF level 5 higher education vocational programmes offered in HE are no longer considered part of VET;
outside the formal school system (adult training) regulated by the 2013 Adult Training Act ( 44 ) and by government decree 11/2020 (II.7) ( 45 ) on its implementation, reference the 2019 VET Act. Participants have a contractual relationship with the training provider.

National legislation thus distinguishes between vocational education (szakmaioktatás), vocational training (szakmaiképzés) and adult learning (felnőttkoritanulás):

vocational education can be provided in the framework of formal IVET and school-based adult education (felnőttoktatás). Vocational training can be provided in the framework of adult training (felnőttképzés) by adult training providers, if they previously had registered or authorise their activity.
adult learning (felnőttkoritanulás) is divided into vocational adult education and adult training.

The 177 basic vocational occupations included in the Register of vocational occupations ( 46 ) can be obtained only within the framework of vocational education. The partial qualifications indicated in the Programme and outcome requirements (KKKs) ( 47 ) of the basic vocational occupations can be acquired both in vocational education and vocational training. Vocational qualifications which are not listed in the new National register of vocational occupations (Szak majegyzék) can be taught based on Programme requirements (PKs) by adult training providers, or schools, if they register or authorise their activities as adult training providers.

Continuing VET is also available in both vocational education and vocational training.

Education provided within the framework of vocational education is free of charge up to achieving the upper secondary school leaving certificate and technician diploma (grade 13 of technicums) or vocational school leaving certificate (grade 11 of vocational schools). In the framework of vocational adult education, two vocational qualifications in vocational education (listed in Szak majegyzék)and a short-cycle vocational training can be acquired free of charge. Adult training courses are fee-paying but the training of vulnerable target groups (unemployed, Roma etc.) can be publicly funded.

The requirements of work-based practical training are also stipulated in the Programme and outcome requirements (KKKs). A vocational employment contract is only available in VET provided within the school system.

The type of attendance (full-time, part-time, evening classes, distance learning) of VET programmes depends on the type of education a learner is enrolled in.

Regular full-time education is mandatory for learners in compulsory schooling (up to age 16), in both the general and vocational paths.

Adult education (felnőttoktatás) (learners over 16) if offered in general or vocational programmes within the school system at all levels ( 48 ) and learners have the following learning options:

full-time (corresponding to 90% of regular full-time education programme hours);
part-time (evening classes, 50%);
correspondence courses (10%);
in 'other' (e.g. distance learning) forms.

Adult education targets learners who did not obtain a formal school certificate of a certain level or a VET qualification during their compulsory schooling, or who want to attain a new basic vocational qualification (occupation). Adult education courses do not differ from regular full-time courses in terms of objectives, admission criteria, structure, main characteristics of curricula, or the awarded State-recognised basic vocational qualifications (occupation).

Learners in the age span 16-25 may enrol either in vocational education or vocational training.

Share of learners in VET in the school year 2020/2021 by learning form
Type of institution	Number of students:
Type of institution	in full time education	in adult education	altogether
Special vocational school and competence development schools	6 948	14	6 962
Vocational school (practice-oriented VET programmes)	56 601	17 169	73 770
Technicum, vocational grammar school (technological programmes)	143 242	23 734	166 976
Phasing out bridging programmes (general and vocational)	2 523	0	2 523
Higher VET programmes	11 820	0	11 820
Altogether	221 134	40 917	262 051

Source: Hungarian Central Statistical Office (Központi Statisztikai Hivatal) https://www.ksh.hu/docs/hun/xftp/idoszaki/oktat/oktatas2021e/index.html

Preliminary data for the school year 2020/2021

Most people in adult education attend evening classes; only a few participate in distance learning or in any other special forms. The lower-qualified and the older population are offered specifically designed programmes within adult training supported by the State through the National Employment Services.

Adult training (felnőttképzés) includes general, language or vocational programmes, provided outside of the school system; it covers many different types and forms of learning opportunities.

The scope of the Adult Training Act of 2013 ( 49 ) covers:

training leading to partial qualifications;
training leading to vocational qualifications other than basic vocational occupations listed in the National register of vocational occupations (Szak majegyzék);

Outside the scope of the Adult training act, other training programmes regulated by the State include:

training towards licences, diplomas, certificates etc. required to perform certain jobs or to fulfil certain positions ( 50 ); their content and objectives are defined by legislation;
mandatory further training programmes for a given occupation ( 51 ) regulated by the responsible ministers.

The VET landscape shaped by the reforms laid down in the VET Act of 2019

The content, structure, funding and governance of VET were fully reformed by the VET Act of 2019 ( 52 ) and the Government Decree on its implementation ( 53 ) which is based on the concepts and guidelines of the VET Strategy 4.0 ( 54 ). These reforms aim to promote a conscious career choice by students and raise the attractiveness of VET by financial incentives for students, VET teachers and businesses. Further changes in the name and structure of VET institutions and programmes strengthen work-based learning by involving more businesses in practical training. The number of vocational employment contracts ( 55 ) is raising. VET programmes meet the demands of the labour market. Another important aim of the VET Strategy was to offer flexible learning pathways for students at risk of dropping out or for students with disadvantaged background, or to provide students with skills required by the 4.0 industrial revolution respective green and digital transitions. Since the school year 2020/21 students entering IVET have begun their studies under the new legislation.

Dual VET and apprenticeships have been improved, especially in upper secondary VET, since 2012 and have been coordinated by the Chamber of Commerce and Industry. The chamber's role in shaping VET has been extended since 2015 by the introduction of a chamber guarantee for securing training places for VET learners (see below). Policy priorities in vocational education and training focus on improving the quality of dual training and increasing the number of companies offering practical training (vocational employment contracts) ( 56 ).

Provision of practical training

According to the new regulation on the content of VET and adult education, training offers are determined by the companies' needs communicated through the sector skills councils.

Apprenticeship contracts were phased out and replaced by vocational employment contracts in 2020; these are concluded also between the student and the company. In this framework, students can learn practical training alongside vocational subjects (VET education as a whole). The employment contracts can be counted as work experience in order to lay claim to seniority. The students who participate in a practical training course and the dual training placement can conlude a VET pre-contract in which they commit themselves to continue in the future with a vocational employment contract for the purpose of specialised practical training. The dual training placement prior to an employment contract with a student can contriibute to a preselection procedure.

The Hungarian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (MKIK) remains responsible for authorising and registering dual training placements. The level exam which was previously conducted by the MKIK has been abolished. Instead students must pass a sectoral basic exam at school. Since, in both technicums and vocational schools, sectoral foundation education is offered in the first phase (in technicums in grade 9 and 10, in vocational schools in grade 9), at the end of the 9th grade there is permeability between the two types of school without any exam.

The sectoral foundation education ends with a sectoral basic exam and allows graduates to fulfill simple jobs. The vocational education also offers possibilities for graduates of grammar shools of upper secondary education and also for those young people who give up their studies at universities. The 2-year training programme (school-based practice-oriented programme) in technicums serves this option. The core essence of the new VET system is that it offers flexible learning routes and permeability.

Since 2015, learners are only allowed to participate in practical training in the school workshop if there is no company (apprenticeship) placement available to them, which has to be confirmed in writing by the Chamber (the Chamber's guarantee). The students who can not fulfill their practical training part (VET education as a whole) at a company will be able to fulfill it in school workshops in the framework of their existing student legal relationship. The registration of vocational employment contracts in the KRÉTA system is made by the company, which also provides related data for the Chamber.

The Chamber continues its task of providing assistance in finding company-based practical training placements for VET students. In grades 11-13 of the five grades, technicums, and in grades 10-11 of the three grades vocational schools, students are able to complete their practical training and vocational education with vocational employment contracts concluded with companies. (In the five gradestechnicums it is offered first of all in grade 13, but the possibility is given also in the 11-13 grades.)

These modifications were phased, starting in the school year 2020/21. The regulations related to financial allowances and regulations according to the previous act on VET were applied to students with current apprenticeship contracts or cooperation agreements until 1 January 2021.

In 2020 IVET students fulfilled their practical training obligation in school workshops or within the framework of an apprenticeship contract. According to the new training system of 2021, a vocational employment contract, which replaces the apprenticeship contract, can be concluded only after the successful completion of the sectoral foundation education: this applies to in case of students in vocational schools from the school year 2021/22, to students in technicums from the school year 2022/23, and to students involved in the 2-year technician programme (school-based practice-oriented programme) after the acquisition of the secondary school leaving certificate from the second semester of the school year 2020/2021.

In the revised system, every student undertaking VET studies receives a scholarship that can be linked to salary in dual training.

In 2020, the financial system for in-company dual training placements changed. Due to the increased student benefits introduced in dual training, a further tax reduction is granted to dual training partners; this can be assessed using an online calculator available on the website of the Hungarian Chamber of Commerce and Industry ( 57 ).

In specialised vocational education - after the successful completion of the sectoral foundation education - the parties must define the role of the dual partner. Two forms of cooperation may be established, depending on how training provision is shared:

part of the learning area/curriculum belongs to the dual partners.

The teaching-learning process aims to equip students for learning outcomes, which can take place in two ways: subject-based teaching and project-based education. Both solutions allow certain curricular and subject units, delivered with the help of the dual partners under the full responsibility of the school.

The full curriculum of the learning areas belongs to the dual partners.

The primary aim of the new VET system is to ensure that specialised vocational education, which can meet the output requirements set out in the Programme and outcome requirements(Képzésiés Kimeneti Követelmények (KKK) and is provided entirely by the dual partners.

Based on the above, theory and practice are not separated from each other.

Until 2020, VET training documents have consistently presented vocational theoretical education and vocational practical training as parts separated from each other.

The approach of the VET 4.0 strategy and the adoption of Act LXXX 2019 on VET has resulted in a fundamental restructuring of training since 2020; by introducing the innovative learning outcomes approach, it eliminated the previous rigid division of professional curriculum content into theory and practice. This step, along with the introduction of vocational employment contracts and additional legislative frameworks, allows the specialised education phase of vocational training:

from the second year in the case of 3-year training,
from the third year in the case of 5-year training,
from the second semester in the case of the 2-year training, starting after the acquisition of the secondary school leaving certificate. This route can also take place completely outside of the school system (at an economic entity/business organisation) in the framework of dual training.

An impression of the learner shares in the old and new VET systems during the transition phase can be offered by the next table:

Ratio of learners in dual training:

	01.10. 2015	01.10. 2016	01.10. 2017	01.10. 2018	01.10. 2019	01.10. 2020	15.09. 2021	25.11. 2021
Nr.of learners with apprenticeship contract	49 92	50 406	54 050	50 790	49 900	39 735	16 095	16 479
Nr.of learners with vocational employment contract							6 094	17 355
Total nr. of contract edlearners with dual partners	49 792	50 406	54 050	50 790	49 900	39 735	22 189	33 834

Source: (ISZIIR, SZIR)

The new legislative background has enabled closer cooperation between vocational training and stakeholders. The additional benefits (scholarship, salary/wage, a career starters' allowance in one lump sum) have further increased the attractiveness of vocational training. The new system of vocational employment contract provides a significant surplus for employers through higher tax incentives and also higher income for students. Dual training - after the sectoral foundation education - based on vocational employment contracts was phased in from September 2021. Consequently, the ratio in the new VET system, in force since 2021, has increased to 59.7 % compared to the ratio in the outgoing VET system, which was 49.1 %.

Since 2021 the new VET system has provided greater flexibility and permeability also from the labour market to the school system: it is also possible as an adult to acquire two occupations and a short-cycle vocational training programme. In order to ensure sufficient flexibility, vocational education is often offered in the form of evening courses of short duration. The training time may also be reduced to a quarter of full-time IVET programme duration, taking into account the professional knowledge acquired previously in the same job. If an adult involved in the training works in the field related to the occupation of training, he/she can spend the time needed for the specialised vocational education at his/her existing employer.

It is possible to enter into vocational education and into vocational training at any age. Anyone who has not yet reached 25 years of age can acquire the second occupation in a student legal relationship. However, vocational education and vocational training over the age of 25 is possible only with in the framework of adult legal status: this means that the person participating in the adult education is not entitled to a scholarship and a career starter allowance in one lump sum, but since September 2021 he/she may request a student ID.

Specialised education can be organised by a dual placement and by a VET institution. A dual placement can be either in a training centre or - except a VET institution - in another business organisation. A training centre (képzőközpont) is a form of joint participation in specialised education. Based on the regulation of 2019, there can be three types of training centre:

knowledge centre for specialised education and dual training at a training centre;
company training centre, which is a large company with its own practical workshop where specialised education is carried on either independently within the company or based on an an arrangement with other business organisations;
sectoral training centre (STC) with the aim of a cooperation in order to meet the requirements to be a dual placement. The work organisation of the 'cluster' is a non-profit company created as a sectoral training centre. The work organisation is responsible for training organisation, coordination and administration. The sectoral training centre is entitled to conclude vocational employment contracts and to benefit from the tax allowance. To date the chamber has registered six sectoral training centres; registration of a further 15 is in progress.

There are two different approaches to the organization and role of the STC, both of which can be efficient:

the STC can act as an organiser of the training: in this case, the STC creates a virtual training place, and the training itself takes place on the infrastructure of the member organisations. The work organisation of the STC performs coordinative and administrative tasks;
the STC itself can provide practical training: in this case, the STC has a training workshop, and the training uses the infrastructure of the STC along with the member organisations.

Governance of the Hungarian VET system

Central governance and administration of VET and adult training, since 2018, is under the responsibility of the Ministry of Innovation and Technology (InnovációsésTechnológiaiMinisztérium) with other ministries being in charge of qualifications in their sectors.

The Ministry of Innovation and Technology is responsible for the management of all vocational occupations and qualifications, but there are ministries responsible for a certain sector. For example, the Ministry of Human Capacities is responsible for the healthcare and artistic sector. In the healthcare sector the training system and the structure of IVET institutions follow the training system and institutional structure of the economic sectors managed by the Ministry of Innovation and Technology. In case of artistic vocational programmes, the old training system and structure (vocational grammar schools) remains. Artistic vocational programmes are subject of the Act on National Public Education but they also offer vocational qualifications for students. Teachers of artistic vocational programmes are further subject to the Act on National Public Education and students are not entitled to financial incentives available in the other VET programmes.

The government has responsibility for VET in issues that exceed the competences of the above.

The Ministry of Human Capacities is in charge of public education ( 58 ) where VET is provided within the formal school system. Higher education belongs to the Ministry of Innovation and Technology, but higher VET, instead of being regulated according to the VET Act, falls under the scope of the HE Act. The Ministry of Innovation and Technology and the Ministry of Human Capacities are responsible for framework curricula of VET and general education, respectively. Other ministers are responsible for qualifications standards in their sectors.

The National Office of VET and Adult Learning (NOVETAL) ( 59 ) and the IKK Innovative Training Support Centre Plc. (IKK) ( 60 ), as VET State administrative bodies, supervised by the Ministry of Innovation and Technology, support the implementation of VET policy developments.

NOVETAL, as a central management body, effects the governing tasks related to VET centres; 363 VET Institutes operate as part of the 41 VET centres. NOVETAL evaluates the professional tasks of the VET centres, controls their legal operation, efficacy, the efficiency of their professional work and follows up the execution of their budget and that of their operation.

NOVETAL also develops the draft National Register of Vocational Occupations (Szak majegyzék) and prepares it for approval and publication, monitors its implementation and makes proposals concerning its amendment or updating. The Office operates the national reference point and manages the Europass certificate supplements. It is the appointed national reference point for ECVET and EQAVET as well. The Office coordinates national and international projects related to VET and AL. The Office also operates EUROGUIDANCE services and is a designated member of EPALE.

IKK supports the implementation of the VET Act's (No LXXX/2019) provisions in relation to innovation, digitalisation and related areas. The IKK Plc also implements GINOP (EDIOP) ( 61 ) and other EU funded or joint projects, supervised professionally by the Ministry of Innovation and Technology. The Minister responsible for VET performs the following activities through the IKK InnovativeTraining Support Centre Plc.:

development of VET text- and coursebooks, digital teaching materials and other instructional tools;
development of the central and interactive professional examinations' content related to elaborating the assessment guidelines and other relevant documentation;
operating the VET Enquiry and Information Centre;
elaborating VET related Research and Developments (R+D) tasks and developing teacher assessment methodology;
organisation of a professional or qualification examination if there is no accredited examination centre for doing so.

As a State administration VET body IKK performs the following tasks:

external evaluation of the quality management system of a VET Institution;
coordination of career counselling and career guidance experts;
ensuring that the Hungarian career counselling and career guidance system is being developed and operated in conformity with EU directives.

Further, the Education Authority is an agency of the Ministry of Human Capacities that operates:

the national systems of assessment in public (general) education;
the uniform admission procedure to upper secondary education (both general and VET);
the secondary school leaving exam;
pedagogical counselling services;
qualification procedures within the teacher career system and teacher/school inspections.

The Pest County Government Office is the administrative body of adult training. It is responsible for registering vocational exams and registering and inspecting adult training providers and programmes ( 62 ).

The employment departments of county/capital government offices, as part of the national employment service led by the Ministry of Finance, provide training support for vulnerable groups.

Social partner involvement: the role of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry

The Chamber of Commerce and Industry has an important role in VET in policy advice, qualifications development for manual jobs ( 63 ), accreditation and supervision of practice providers, provision of apprenticeship contracts (including the chamber guarantee measure ( 64 ) and career guidance services.

Social partners shape VET policy through participation in advisory bodies, mainly:

in the VET Innovation Council ( 65 ) - a national VET policy decision-making, reflection and proposing body which defines VET development pathways for the Hungarian VET system;
in 19 sectoral skills councils (SSCs) ( 66 ) set up in 2018 ( 67 ) and operating under the coordination of the chamber of commerce (with the involvement of the chamber of agriculture in relevant sectors) to monitor labour market trends and needs for new skills and qualifications;
at county level, the Chamber of Commerce and Industry sets up the County Labour-market Reconciliation Roundtable ( 68 ). The aim of the roundtable is to develop professional dialogue with higher education, VET and adult training, which is in line with the development of the given county economy. Participants have undertaken to share relevant developments, labour market and training information, to formulate the training needs of the sector and to promote the preparation of professional materials.

VET providers: public education sector ( 69 )

Governance of schools has been centralised since 2013 and the majority of VET schools (those that came under the maintenance of the ministry responsible for VET in 2015) have been integrated into a network of 41 vocational centres ( 70 ). The vocational centres coordinate education and training activities of the member schools, manage their finances and help them offer training better aligned with labour market needs, promoting partnerships with businesses and innovation.

State-maintained VET schools in the sector of agriculture, (and forestry, fishery, food industry) are operated by the Ministry of Agriculture and belong to the network of agricultural VET schools (56 schools) of five agricultural VET centres.

The Ministries of Interior and of Defence, as well as some universities, also operate some VET schools that provide sector-specific programmes.

Under the Public Education Act ( 71 ), Church and business entities, foundations and associations can also maintain schools, which can get funding from the central government budget based on an agreement with the minister responsible for VET ( 72 ).

Provision of practical training

Practical training is part of the curricula of all VET programmes and can be provided in school-based setting or at companies. The latter is based on a vocational employment contract between the learner and the company.

Dual VET is provided through vocational employment contracts, which are an integral part of the specialised vocational training of technicums (ISCED 454) and vocational schools (ISCED 353) provided by companies. Until 2020 apprenticeship contracts were coordinated by the Chamber of Commerce and Industry ( 73 ), which were responsible for accrediting and registering training providers, supporting learners to find a placement at a training provider, and registering vocational employment contracts.

Since 2017, companies may establish joint sectoral training centres which are being set up in order to support the capacity of SMEs and micro enterprises to offer training ( 74 ).

VET providers: higher education sector

Vocational programmes offered at EQF level 5 are provided by higher education institutions ( 75 ).

Higher education VET programmes include a mandatory, 1-semester (minimum 14 weeks) period of company-based practice in the last (fourth) semester. Where that is provided in a block of 6 or more weeks, it must be organised on the basis of a cooperation agreement between the higher education institution and the company. The company then also has to make a student work contract (hallgatói munkaszerződés) with the student.

CVET/adult training providers

Learners in adult training must sign an adult training contract with the training provider. The amended Adult Training Act of 2013 replaced the former system of institutional and programme accreditation by a newer system of registration and authorisation. The authorisation is made by the Pest County Government Office ( 76 ), based on the opinion of an expert committee. All providers should operate a quality assurance system, which must be in line with a framework system ( 77 ) defined by the minister responsible for VET and adult training. Adult training providers include:

public and higher education institutions engaging in adult training as a supplementary activity;
other budgetary or State-funded institutions, most notably, regional training centres ( 78 );
the chambers of economy organising the master craftsman exams and offering preparatory training;
private training companies;
NGOs (non-profit organisations, professional associations, etc.)
employers providing in-company (internal) training for their own employees.

IVET funding

The entire education public expenditure relative to GDP continuously fell from 2005 to 2013: from 5.3% to 3.9%. In the next 3 years after 2013, GDP-proportional expenses gradually increased (to 4.4% 2016) and then in the years 2018-2019 a slight decrease is seen from 4.2% to 3.9% of the GDP ( 79 ).

Learners may enrol free of charge in formal VET to learn up to two VET occupations listed in the new National register of vocational occupations (Szakmajegyzék) ( 80 ) and visit a short-cycle vocational qualification obtained in the framework of adult training VET schools. They are funded by:

the State budget and the contribution of the school funding that cover the costs of training provision in VET schools;
a training levy paid by enterprises ( 81 ) that finances practical training provision at enterprises as well as the training sub-fund of the Economic Protection Employment Fund ( 82 ).

VET is funded from the State budget on an annual basis ( 83 ). The Act LXXX of 2019 on VET introduced a new notion regarding the teaching staff of VET institutions (teachers, lecturers with agency contracts, practical instructors, etc.). Since the beginning of the school year 2020/21 they are named uniformly VET TEACHERS. Their legal status was also changed; instead of civil servant status, whose employment is governed by service regulations, since 1 July 2020 the Labour Code provisions are applied for them. The salaries of the teaching staff in VET institutions significantly increased since 1 July 2020. The HUF 35 billion (approx. EUR 97 million) additional funding provided by the State budget allowed for an average 30 % increase. The exact amount of the pay rise was determined per individual. The new system is performance-based and applied to almost 32 000 people working in IVET.

The training levy and the Economic Protection Employment Fund (training sub-fund)

There are several ways enterprises may pay the vocational training levy, which is 1.5 % of the wage cost

by providing practical training to students in VET and certain higher education programmes ( 84 ) and deducting their costs from the training levy ( 85 );
by providing or financially supporting employee training;
by paying it directly into the VET Contribution account of the National Tax Office.

The training sub-fund of the National Employment Fund (renamed in 2021 as Economic Protection Employment Fund) is also used to:

support training providers that do not pay the training levy ( 86 ) and to offer apprenticeships;
finance national programmes (and decentralised tenders) to improve infrastructure and technological capacities in VET and adult training programmes;

The training sub-fund can be used by the minister responsible for VET (assisted by the National Office of VET and AL and other advisory bodies on VET) according to the needs and policy priorities, in line with provisions regarding its use in legislation ( 87 ).

CVET/Adult training funding

Adult training programmes provided outside the formal school system are funded by:

participant (learner) contributions;
employer contributions, including the training levy;
the Economic Protection Employment Fund (employment sub-fund) ( 88 ) which is used to finance training programmes for the unemployed and other vulnerable groups;
the Economic Protection Employment Fund (training sub-fund) (see above);
the central State budget and international (mostly ESF) assistance, which jointly finance various development programmes.

Funding mechanisms include:

public funding (of mandatory CVET in the public sector; grants for individuals, primarily for the unemployed and at-risk groups, and grants for micro and small enterprises);
public-private cost-sharing (grants for at-risk groups; grants for enterprises; tax incentive for companies, see section: Incentives for learners);
collective (employer, employee) investment to finance CVET (training leave and payback clauses specified by the Labour Code).

VET teacher types

Teaching staff in VET schools

The employment, initial and further training of all teachers and trainers working in VET institutions are regulated by the VET Act ( 89 ).The act also regulates the qualification requirements of in-company trainers.

The table below lists the types of VET teachers and trainers working in VET schools, their qualification and further training requirements, respective tasks and responsibilities.

Teachers and trainers employed in VET institutions, 2021

Title/ tasks and responsibilities	Required qualification
Title/ tasks and responsibilities	Technicum	VET school
General subject teacher/ Teaching general education subjects	Relevant teacher qualification (university level or master degree, ISCED 766 or 767)	Relevant teacher qualification (bachelor degree, ISCED 665)
Vocational teacher/ Teaching vocational subjects	Relevant VET teacher qualification (master degree, ISCED 766 or 767) or degree in higher education, as well as vocational qualification relevant to the subject (ISCED 665 and 453, 454)	Relevant degree in higher education, as well as vocational qualification (ISCED 665 and 453, 454) or degree in higher education, as well as vocational qualification relevant to the subject (ISCED 665 and 453, 454)
Vocational teacher of practical subjects/ Teaching vocational practical subjects in the school	secondary school-leaving certificate (ISCED 344) and vocational qualification relevant to the subject
In-company trainer)/ Instructing vocational content at an enterprise	Relevant vocational qualification, at least 5 years of professional experience and chambers' practice trainer exam certificate (issued by the Hungarian Chamber of Commerce and Industry, MKIK). Practice trainer exam exemptions are: master craftsman certificate (issued by MKIK) and relevant higher education degree (in this case, professional experience of 2 years is enough), or higher education degree and a relevant upper-secondary qualification, or, in respect of the health sector, a medical instructor qualification, or those 60 years of age or older.

Source: VET Act (Act LXXX of 2019 on Vocational Education and Training), VET Decree (Government Decree No 12/2020 of 7 February 2020 on the implementation of the Act on Vocational Education and Training)

VET teacher qualifications can currently be obtained in:

4+1-year undivided (long) university programmes;
four-semester master programmes (in which the duration of training can be reduced to three semesters by recognising previous teaching experience in public education);
two-semester master programmes for those who already hold a master diploma in the professional field.

The vast majority of learners in vocational teacher training study in master programmes, in part-time and in correspondence learning form.

The 4+1-year programmes include subject-specific training (minimum 160 credits), a teacher training module including pedagogical, psychological and methodological studies (50 credits) and a 1-year final external school teaching practice (40 credits). The duration of external teaching practice is one semester in the four-semester master programmes. VET teacher training programmes prepare participants for teaching several subjects of vocational theory.

Since 2006, vocational instructor training is offered in seven-term bachelor level programmes in three areas (business, technology and agriculture) and various specialisations. They consist of subject-specific training, pedagogical studies (including psychology) and practical training; the latter includes teaching practice and 12-week external vocational practice.

The qualification requirements of in-company trainers supervising the practical training of VET learners at enterprises are defined by the VET act. All instructors must have a relevant vocational qualification and at least 5 years of professional experience. Since 2018 instructors must also have the newly introduced practice trainer exam certificate issued by MKIK (for practice trainer exam exemptions see the above table).

Teachers and trainers in higher education VET programmes

Higher education VET programmes have been fully integrated into higher education since 2013, so the qualification and further training requirements of VET teachers/trainers involved are regulated and vary by institutions.

VET teachers and trainers in adult training

Adults get access both to vocational education and to vocational training in Hungary. The systems of vocational education and vocational training supplement each other and ensure the possibility of lifelong learning.

In the framework of vocational education, vocational qualifications listed in the National register of vocational occupations (Szakmajegyzék) can be obtained (EQF levels 4-5) in vocational institutions regulated by the VET Act. The requirements for teachers and trainers of vocational institutions are shown in the Teachers and trainers employed in VET institutions, 2021 table above.

The legal framework of vocational training is set by the Adult Training Act and the Vet Act. Adult training services can be provided by trainer institutions that acquired a permit according to the Adult Training Act (vocational institutions - technicums and vocational schools - shall also act as adult trainer institutions in compliance with the regulations set by the Vet and Adult Training Acts).

Upon completion of vocational training, certificates are issued.

Adult trainer institutions must have a quality assurance system in place. As part of its quality assurance system, the adult trainer institution must have a document on teachers' qualifications, competences and CPD.

Continuing professional development of teachers/trainers

The continuous training of teachers and trainers working in VET institutions ( 90 ) are regulated by the VET Act of 2019. The 2019 VET Act regulates the qualification requirements of in-company trainers but makes no provision for the continuous professional development of in-company trainers (see table below).

Teachers and trainers employed in VET institutions, 2021

Title/ tasks and responsibilities	In-service training
General subject teacher/ Teaching general education subjects	Compulsory in-service training of 60 hours every 4 years. VET teachers and trainers must participate in in-service training that contributes to the development of their knowledge and skills related to their vocational qualifications. Teachers and trainers of a specialised vocational education subjects should primarily undergo the training in a corporate setting or in a training centre. The planning, coordination, organisation and continuous monitoring of the in-service training of VET teachers and trainers at the national level are carried out by the IKK Innovative Training Support Centre, which set up a national system for the in-service training of VET teachers and trainers (OTR). The list of training courses available is expanded and updated several times a year.
Vocational teacher/ Teaching vocational subjects
Vocational teacher of practical subjects/ Teaching vocational practical subjects in the school
In-company trainer)/ Instructing vocational contents at an enterprise	No compulsory in-service training

Source: VET Act, VET Decree, https://ikk.hu/otr

Teachers/trainers must participate in 60 hours of in-service training that contributes to the renewal of their knowledge and skills every 4 years. The heads of the VET institutions are required to attend courses that renew and compliment leadership skills.

According to the teacher evaluation system introduced by the VET Act of 2019, the head of the VET institution evaluates the performance of VET teachers and trainers every 3 years, in accordance with the methodology proposed by the Minister for Vocational Education and Training and implemented accordingly for the VET institution.

There are no legal requirements concerning the in-service training of in-company trainers.

VET teachers and trainers in adult training

In-service training for adult training instructors is not mandatory, but adult training providers have to operate a quality assurance system, including procedures to ensure the continuous training and quality of instructors. Current practice shows great variety in this respect and most adult training providers offer further training for their (full-time) instructors on an occasional basis only.

More information is available in the Cedefop ReferNet thematic perspective on teachers and trainers ( 91 ).

Anticipating skill needs

Labour market forecasts

Short-term labour market forecasts have been produced by the labour organisation since 1991. Since 2005 they have been developed in cooperation with the Institute for Economic and Enterprise Research of the Hungarian Chamber of Commerce and Industry ( 92 ). Forecasts are made annually, based on a stratified sample of companies, representative for sector and size. They provide information about current and prospective layoffs and demand by sector and occupation groups ( 93 ).

The labour departments of county government offices also regularly prepare quarterly analyses of prospective layoffs and opening positions planned by companies in the following 3 and 12 months. These are based on data reported to the respective county office ( 94 ).

Since 2008, the Economic and Enterprise Research of the Hungarian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (MKIK GVI) has also prepared annual surveys on labour market supply and demand, specifically for skilled workers over the course of the next 1 and 4 years. These include qualitative information about employer satisfaction with the general and vocational competences of VET graduates ( 95 ). Data are collected by the local chambers. The results assist county development and training committees to make informed recommendations to the minister responsible for VET about enrolment in VET schools (see section, VET funding mechanisms) and to prepare the county-level lists of qualifications in-demand that serve as the basis of allocating additional funds to learners and enterprises.

One of the tasks of the sectoral skills councils, established in 2018, is to prepare short- and mid-term forecasts, to define the directions and objectives of VET development and to propose updates of qualifications and curricula.

In 2020 a labour market forecasting system was devised by the State Secretariat for Economic Strategy and Regulation and is in course of implementation. It helps with better adjustment of the adult training courses content to the labour market demands. The system is based on wide statistical data and will be an online tool. The planned functions of the labour market forecasting system's platform are the following:

labour market demand and supply analysis;
training;
jobs finding;
regional tracking of the labour market demands;
labour market trends analysis;
reports on:
- countrywide most-requested jobs at the moment;
- demonstration of the market trends reflecting supply and demand;

provision of lists like:
- supply of vocational occupations at the moment in county of Pest;
- expected training supply in 2023.

The developments also include linking administrative data bases, major investments, and macro data related to number of people in retirement or on childcare leave.

Career tracking of VET graduates

According to the VET Act of 2019 the National Office for VET and Adult Learning will run the national career tracking system of VET graduates. Since 2020 the data related to the VET institutions have to be registered in the VET information system (Szakképzés Információs Rendszere, SZIR), which is also a new module of the KRÉTA electronic record keeping system ( 96 ).

Relevant data can be collected also from the National Tax and Customs Administration ( 97 ), the pension insurance system and the public education information system. The SZIR is maintained by the NOVETAL, appointed by the VET Act to operate the VET career tracking system. Beside the SZIR, NOVETAL developed a questionnaire for graduate VET students which, together with the SZIR, provide the data for VET graduate tracking. The introduction of the career tracking system in VET is an ongoing procedure; in adult training it has already been worked out and, according to the plans, it will be introduced in 2022.

Since 1 September 2020, the data-providing obligations related to the registration or authorisation of the activities performed by the adult training providers, have to be fulfilled in the FAR (Felnőttképzési Adatszolgáltatási Rendszer) system which is also a module of the KRÉTA system.

The FAR system is also used to:

issue certificates proving the completion of training;
provide data regarding to financial training credits;
record the participants' satisfaction assessments;
function as a database for the adult career tracking system and for the participants' satisfaction assessment system.

The electronic platform for adult career tracking was worked out in 2020 and is on course to be introduced.

Annual VET supply and demand surveys conducted by the Economic and Enterprise Research of the Hungarian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (MKIK GVI) included 'career tracking snapshots' to map the labour-market success of those who acquired an in-demand vocational qualification through apprenticeship training. Different methodologies have been used; the latest in 2018 involves surveying a sample of learners in their last school year and then 7 to 8 months later, and again 19-20 months after graduation.

In 2008-10, a 'hybrid' system of graduate career monitoring ( 98 ), combining national and institutional level tracking, was developed for the higher education with ESF support. This is based on a different methodological approach (survey of graduates using a questionnaire, 3 and 5 years after graduation), and the results and analysis of the DPR ( 99 ) data collection are published annually.

See also Cedefop's skills forecast ( 100 ) and European Skills Index ( 101 ).

Designing qualifications

The new National register of vocational occupations (Szakmajegyzék)

The National qualifications register (HuQR) has been superseded by the National register of vocational qualifications/occupations) (Szakmajegyzék). The number of qualifications listed has been reduced and renamed as basic vocational occupations. The new register was introduced in September 2020 and the version which is effective as of 1 September 2021 includes 177 so called basic vocational occupations ( 102 ). Beyond that, around 65 partial qualifications are available for students in the framework of adult training courses School workshop/catch-up programme.

In IVET, basic vocational qualifications (occupations) and partial qualifications may be acquired by completing a vocational programme, meeting all the vocational and examination requirements, laid down in the KKKs. The KKKs contain the partial qualifications linked to basic vocational occupations. The basic vocational qualifications (occupations) are listed in the new National register of vocational occupations.

Basic vocational qualifications (occupations) can be obtained only within the formal school system in the new VET institution types: technicums and vocational schools (technological programmes and practice-oriented VET programmes).

More specifically, 100 basic vocational qualifications (occupations) can be acquired in technicums, and 77 in vocational schools. Since 1 September 2020, vocational occupations are an entry requirement for the secondary school leaving examination, can been taught only in the formal school system. Partial qualifications can be obtained both in the formal school system and in adult training.

In IVET two type of qualifications are available:

a vocational qualification (occupation) entitles its holder to perform all jobs related to one or several qualifications; its programme and outcome requirements typically include several qualification-specific contents as well contents shared by two or more qualifications;
a partial vocational qualification entitles its holder to perform at least one job and its vocational and examination requirements contain only some of the contents of vocational occupation.

Programme and outcome requirements

Initial vocational education and training is divided into vocational education and general education, provided in parallel. Both vocational education and general education are subject to three-level content regulation.

Content regulation of full-time initial vocational education and training (IVET).

General education phase.
National core curriculum.
General education framework curriculum
Professional education programme of formal VET institutions.

Content regulation of full-time initial vocational education and training (IVET): vocational education phase
Programme and outcome requirements
Programme curriculum
Professional programme of formal VET institutions

The highest level of the content regulation of general education is the National core curriculum (NCC). The NCC is a centrally developed regulatory document issued in a government decree, which defines the values, the body of knowledge, the epistemology and concept of learning for grades 1–12 of the general education phase.

Programme and outcome requirements (képzési és kimeneti követelmények, hereafter KKKs) comprise the highest level of vocational education regulation. They are published by the Minister responsible for VET in an official publication, so flexible update and renewal of KKKs aligned with labour market demand is possible regularly. Applied on a mandatory basis, the KKKs define the learning outcomes of vocations, as well as the measurement and assessment system; in other words, the requirements of the vocational examination.

The basic data listed in the KKKs are:

basic data related to the vocational education (e.g. EQF, HuQF level, sector, related partial vocational qualifications or specialisations, period of continuous vocational practice);
the most significant activities, jobs related to the given vocational occupation;
entry requirements for the VET programme (pre-school education, eligibility requirements: occupational health conditions, professional attitude criteria);
necessary equipment resources: list of tools both for sectoral and specialised professional education;
skills, competences, knowledge, expected behaviour, attitudes, level of autonomy and responsibility descriptors;
description of the sectoral basic exam and that of the final vocational exam, criteria for assessing and evaluating the exams (both the theoretical and practical ones);
building on the DigComp 2.1 framework (Digital competence framework for citizens), KKKs place special emphasis on the general and vocation-specific digital competences required for a given vocation.

The second level of vocational education regulation is the programme curriculum issued by the Minister responsible for VET as a recommendation, which defines the scope of vocational subjects for each individual grade, and the topics and mandatory number of classes for each subject. The programme curriculum developed in conformity with the KKKs, replaces the former VET framework curricula.

Based on the KKKs respective programme curricula proposal, VET institutions have to prepare their local professional programme (local curriculum), which consists of an educational and a practical training programme. Dual training placements in companies also have to work out a practical training programme. The KKKs, programme curricula and local training programmes replace the previous content standards laid down in the vocational and examination requirements (szakmai és vizsgakövetelmények, SZVK).

The dual VET system was also reformed by the adoption of the VET Act of 2019. Although the dual training form remained in place, the introduction of outcome-based regulation and the definition of requirements based on learning outcomes requires a prominent change in content regulation approach and methodology.

Designing and updating vocational qualifications (occupations) and standards

Any institution or person can initiate the deletion, modification or introduction of a vocational occupation in the register of vocational occupations by submitting a proposal to the minister responsible for the given vocational occupation (sector). The initiating institution or person must provide detailed justification for the amendment ( 103 ).

Proposals are first reviewed by the National Office of VET and Adult Learning ( 104 ). Social partners are involved in the process through the National VET and Adult Learning Council, whose opinion is consulted by the minister responsible for VET before making a final decision ( 105 ). Social partners and experts (practitioners as well as teachers) are involved in all major VET qualifications development projects initiated by the government.

Standards can also be updated without modifying the national register, only by the amendment of the SZVKs/vocational requirement modules. In such cases, SZVKs are developed by practitioners and teacher experts and commissioned by the responsible body/agency. The Hungarian Chamber of Commerce and Industry ( 106 ) has played a special role in qualification design, it was responsible for developing the standards of the majority of qualifications (those that are required for manual jobs). Their role in qualification design was eliminated in 2019 due to the responsibilities of the newly set up sectoral skills councils.

Sectoral skills councils

Under a 2017 amendment to the previous VET Act of 2015, as of 1 July 2018, the chamber of commerce coordinates the operation of the newly established sectoral skills councils (SSCs) ( 107 ). For sectors which fall within the competence of the Minister for Agriculture (including also forestry, food industry and fisheries), this task will be carried out with the involvement of the Hungarian Chamber of Agriculture ( 108 ).

At the government's initiative ( 109 ), 19 SSCs covering 41 economic sectors, each with 7-19 members, were set up in 2018. These are voluntary associations of stakeholders in a given sector that support and promote the design, update and development of qualifications standards and align them with labour market and employer demands. Their work includes:

monitoring of labour market trends and technological developments;
making proposals for new/updated vocational occupations and partial qualifications in the national register and training programmes and skills;
making forecasts to share short- and medium-term strategies.

In 2020 an expert committee proposed by the sector skills councils worked out the KKKs for the basic vocational occupations and partial qualifications, the programme requirements (Program követelmények, hereafter PKs) for the qualifications taught by adult training providers. The committee set out sector-based proposals for the further training of VET teachers in a corporate environment in order to renew and enhance the knowledge, skills and competences of VET teachers applying a demand-driven structure. At the end of 2020, the SSCs prepared their sectoral résumés in accordance with the amendments and additions of the professional descriptions.

Standards and curricula in adult training

Adult training

Vocational adult learning in Hungary is divided into formal vocational adult education and adult training. In the framework of school-based vocational adult education, students of any ages can acquire basic vocational occupations listed in the National Register of Vocational Occupations (Szak majegyzék). Vocational training can be provided in the framework of adult training by adult training providers (they can be formal VET institutions too), if they previously had registered or authorise their activity.

The qualifications provided in the framework of adult training are not regulated by the law, and their number is also not limited, so a flexible adult training system can emerge, capable of responding in a short time to labour demands market. Within the framework of adult training, only qualifications which are not listed in the National register of vocational occupations (Szak majegyzék) can be taught.

Content and regulation of adult training

The highest level of the content regulation comprises the programme requirements (Program követelmények, hereafter PKs), registered by the minister responsible for VET. Adult training providers elaborate a training programme based on the programme requirements.

Altogether 461 programme requirements have been approved and registered. Approved PKs are published on the website of the IKK Innovative Training Support Centre Plc. Every year the minister responsible for VET supervises the registered PKs; based on his decision, PKs whose vocational competences were incorporated in the sphere of vocational competences of a certain basic vocational occupation are deleted. The minister responsible for VET publishes those PKs to be deleted. The Committee of Programme Requirements is regulated by the sector skills councils, which are coordinated by the Hungarian Chamber of Commerce and Industry.

Students who fulfil the study requirements of an adult training programme receive, instead of a qualification certificate, only a certificate attesting that they have successfully finished a certain adult training programme. To acquire a certificate of qualification recognised by the State they have to take a final vocational exam in one of the accredited examination centres. Thus, the quality of the training and their high level of skills and competences needed for that qualification have to be recognised by the State.

The qualifications which can be taught in the framework of adult training are not listed in a separate register. The programme requirements approved and registered by the minister responsible for VET can be found on the website of the IKK Plc ( 110 ).

The new provision was introduced as a phased process. Adult Learning providers were allowed to start courses teaching a qualification listed in the former NQR till the end of the year 2020, on condition that the final examinations (including retakes and correctional exams) will be taken before 31 December 2022, according to the Government Decree on the implementation of the Act on VET of 2019.

Quality management system in formal VET

In connection with the comprehensive reform of the VET system, in line with the objectives of the VET 4.0 Strategy ( 111 ) and the relevant provisions of the VET legislation of 2019 and 2020, a new common institutional quality management system (QMS) is being designed, developed and will be introduced in formal VET, based on self-evaluation and the EQAVET Framework ( 112 ). VET institutions shall develop their QMS by 31 August, 2022 with the methodological support of VET sectoral governance ( 113 ).

The Act on VET of 2019 ( 114 ) requires that the activity of VET institutions ( 115 ) (szakképző intézmény) is based on a quality management system. The implementing regulation of 2020 ( 116 ) defines the components of such a QMS.

In the quality policy, VET institutions develop their mission and vision, set strategic goals and quality objectives, declare the commitment of the institution's leadership to quality and continuous quality improvement, define the organisational framework of QMS and the regulated processes of the institution in the areas of leadership and management, education-teaching-training and support functions as well as resource provision (e.g. financial processes).
Comprehensive self-evaluation by VET institutions shall be conducted every two years. The Self-evaluation guide (to be published by the minister responsible for VET) contains the set of evaluation criteria, the indicator system, the processes to be regulated, the measurement tools, the work templates, the proposed procedure and methodology of self-evaluation. The institutions analyse the results of self-evaluation, identify strengths and areas for improvement, elaborate action plans and implement improvement actions.
VET teacher-trainer evaluation is to be carried out by the heads of VET institutions every 3 years. The methodological recommendation (to be published by the minister responsible for VET) contains the evaluation criteria with their interpretation, explanation and indication of the data sources of evaluation, and also the evaluation methods and tools.
External evaluation will evaluate the professional activity of VET institutions, the work of the institutions' heads and also the effectiveness of the institution's teacher-trainer evaluation system. It will be performed by the Innovative Training Support Centre ( 117 ) every 4 years. The External evaluation guide (to be published by the minister responsible for VET) contains the same set of evaluation criteria used for self-evaluation, the description of the procedure and the methodology of external evaluation, the measuring tools and work templates. VET institutions will publish the results of external evaluation on their website and, based on the evaluation results, prepare action plans.

In line with the relevant legislation, the evaluation criteria and evaluation tools of self-evaluation, external evaluation and VET teacher-trainer evaluation shall be developed on the basis of the EQAVET framework, in such a way that they integrate the EQAVET indicative descriptors and the EQAVET indicators applicable at VET provider level.

As the first step of the QMS introduction, the new set of criteria for evaluating VET teacher and trainer performance has been established ( 118 ), based on job evaluation and in consideration of the EQAVET framework. These new criteria are applicable to all teaching-training jobs in VET institutions and have served as the basis for the new job classification and salary increase for VET teachers and trainers, as their status has changed and they have become employees under the Labour Code (instead of the Public Employees Act) since 1 July, 2020 onwards.

The performance evaluation system for VET teachers and trainers consists of 10 evaluation areas ( 119 ). The VET teachers and trainers are assessed on a six-point scale in each evaluation area. The score represents the competence and performance level achieved by the VET teacher/ trainer.

Quality assurance in dual VET

The VET legislation of 2019 and 2020 imposes quality assurance obligations on both dual VET providers and the chamber of economy ( 120 ).

The dual VET providers should either operate a quality management system (OMS), which corresponds to the one defined for the VET institutions in the VET Act of 2019 and its implementing regulation ( 121 ) or at least comply with the quality requirements specified in the set of criteria developed by the chamber of economy. Similar to the VET institutions, dual VET providers should develop their quality management approach by 31 August, 2022.

In line with the QMS requirements of the VET institutions, the quality management system of dual VET providers consists of quality policy, comprehensive self-evaluation and - based on the results - correction and improvement activities.

The set of quality requirements developed by the chamber of economy ( 122 ) is a value-based quality concept, which consists of seven closely interlinked elements ( 123 ) and is applicable to all dual VET providers regardless of their size and sector/trade.

The quality assurance of dual VET providers is also ensured by their renewed registration procedure ( 124 ) and monitoring of their dual VET activity by the chambers of economy with territorial competence, with the aim to provide high quality dual training placements responding to labour market needs. The inspection covers checking the adequacy of personnel and infrastructure, the fulfilment of legal requirements regarding dual VET provision, and the operation of the quality management system or the in-practice application of the chamber's quality requirements.

Quality management in adult training

The recently amended adult training legislative framework - the 2019 amendment of the Act on Adult Training ( 125 ) and the government decree on its implementation of 2020 ( 126 ) - regulates the quality assurance mechanisms (licensing, quality management system, external evaluation) of adult training providers, with the aim of ensuring continuous quality improvement in training programmes and training activity provided outside the formal school system.

The 2019 amendment of the Act on Adult Training of 2013 defines the licensing conditions of adult training providers' training activity and also the scope of the training programmes which are subject to licensing.

Adult training providers have to apply for the licence that specifies the training programmes and courses they are entitled to offer. The license is awarded for an indefinite time by the Pest County Government Office ( 127 ), based on the opinion of an expert committee.

The compulsory requirement for issuing the licence is that the adult training providers set up and operate their own quality management system, in accordance with the requirements specified in the government decree. The government decree defines also the main elements of the adult training quality management system, which are quality policy and strategy, quality management documents, relevant procedures and methods ( 128 ), indicators, feedback mechanisms, self-evaluation and corrective actions.

The external evaluation, to be performed by the Innovative Training Support Centre ( 129 ) at least once every 4 years, examines whether the adult training providers perform their training activity in accordance with the quality management system, and evaluates the adult training activity and the work of the trainers. The centre develops the external evaluation methodology and tools on the basis of the EQAVET Framework.

Following the evaluation, the Centre gives the adult training providers justified feedback on the results and, according to this, they may receive suggestions to elaborate and implement an action programme.

Hungary does not have a nationwide skills assessment and validation system based on uniform principles and procedures; however, several prior developments and pilots were implemented in the 2018-21 period. The validation of non-formal and informal learning outcomes appears in some policy documents as an important tool for lifelong learning but there is no evidence of an explicit national strategy ( 130 ). In the framework of the project Improving the quality and content of 21st century vocational training and adult education (GINOP - 6.2.4), pilot projects related to the introduction of a nationwide validation system were completed in 2020; due to the negative impacts of COVID-19, the validation system has not yet been implemented. However, recognition and validation procedures were implemented sporadically.

Arrangements for recognition of prior learning in force since 2021

The new National Register of Vocational Occupations (Szakmajegyzék) includes HuQF classification based on Annex 1 of Government Decree 12/2020 (II.07) as amended by Government Decree 319/2020 (VII.1). The Register of vocational occupations also indicates the digital competence framework level. The Programme and outcome requirements of the basic vocational occupations, listed in the Register of vocational occupations, were established based on learning outcomes. In this case reference standards are available, based on which the assessments of prior learning can start.

In the formal school-based VET and vocational adult education there are some legal provisions related to validation laid down in the VET Act of 2019.It provides for the opportunity to recognise previous work experience in the completion of vocational practical training, subject to the principal's decision. Learners in VET schools can also get their prior learning recognised during their training, subject to the principal's decision.

For school-based formal vocational adult education provided for participants whose legal status is adult:

a) the timeframe dedicated to the education of a vocational occupation can be reduced not more than to a quarter of the full time IVET programmes' duration;

b) the number of hours can be reduced but not more than 40% of the total hours in the full time IVET programmes;

c) under the Adult training Act of 2013, assessment of learners' prior learning (competences) is compulsory in adult training courses that provide a vocational qualification listed in the national vocational qualifications register and in State-supported foreign language courses; in other publicly supported training programmes it must be carried out upon the request of the applicant.

The VET Act of 2019, effective from 1 January 2020, devotes a separate chapter to regulating the recognition of previous studies and practical experiences. As defined in the professional programme of the vocational institution:

a) studies in a VET, public or HE institution shall be counted as a requirement necessary for the fulfilment of the given vocational occupation with a same content;

b) practical time spent in an employment relationship in the same specialisation before the start of vocational training shall be included in the period of the specialised vocational education.

c) the study requirements for a given vocational occupation can be fulfilled in a shorter time than envisaged by the law.

The COVID-19 pandemic revealed the need for more flexible validation and skills assessment providing quicker solutions, e.g. the ability to register, use and recognise micro-credentials issued by the MOOCs or even by formal educational and training institutions on the Europass platform. It is important to avoid the risk of many different validation solutions that could lead to fragmentation or isolation.

The Education Authority (Oktatási Hivatal) operates the National coordination point of the European qualification framework and also addresses, like NOVETAL, policy issues regarding validation of prior learning. For more information about arrangements for the validation of non-formal and informal learning please visit Cedefop's relevant database ( 131 ).

Supporting skills for jobs is a priority, especially during specialised vocational studies (grades 11, 12, 13 in technicums and grade 10 and 11 in vocational schools). This can be achieved through raising the attractiveness of and participation in VET, as well as promoting vocational employment contracts (former apprenticeship contracts), which have been high on the policy agenda in recent years. Incentives are in place to support these goals. Since the school year 2020/21 new financial incentive mechanisms were introduced in VET. Every student of an IVET institution, regardless of the maintainer - on the condition that from 1 September 2021 the maintainer has a cooperation agreement with the Ministry of Innovation and Technology - is entitled to:

general scholarship: the amount of payment is regulated by the VET act: it is linked to the monthly minimum wage (MMW) using different multipliers as follows:

in technicums during sectoral foundation studies (grades 9 and 10): 5% (EUR 22/month)
in vocational schools during sectoral foundation studies (grade 9): 10% (EUR 44/month)
in the career orientation development year (preparatory programme), in the school workshop (catch up programme and in the Springboard programme (basic competences development programme: 5% (EUR 22/month)
during specialised vocational studies (grades 11, 12 and 13 in technicums and grades 9 and 10 in vocational schools) taken place in school workshops: based on academic performance (5-35%);

monthly wage: for students involved in practical training in the framework of vocational employment contract ( 132 ) at a company placement, the amount of monthly wage must reach at least 60% of the MMW (EUR 263 in 2021);
career starter allowance: for young people studying their first vocational occupation, after completing their studies, the amount of the grant depends on the academic performance (80-180% of MMW).

According to the VET Act of 2019, since the school year 2021/22 disadvantaged students with good academic performance can apply for the Apáczai scholarship. This initiative promotes talent development and reduces disadvantages for SEN students. The monthly amount of the Apáczai scholarship is intended to be 20% of the MMW (this scholarship can be obtained in the second semester of the school year 2021/22: up to EUR 91 depending to the academic performance of the applicant).

The general scholarship, the career starter allowance and the Apáczai scholarship is transferred to the bank account of the students, helping them to raise their financial awareness.

Other financial incentives include competitions and media campaigns such as:

WorldSkills and EuroSkills (2018, held in Budapest);
the Excellent student of the trade competition for IVET learners, organised for programmes running under the supervision of the Chamber of Commerce;
final rounds of VET study competitions at the annual Trade Star Festival.

Financial incentives for adult learners

Financial remuneration and other benefits provided to adults in the framework of vocational employment contracts are regulated by the VET Act. Since 1 September 2021 the following incentives are available for those participating in vocational adult education with an adult legal contract:

if a working adult is involved in adult education in the framework of an adult training legal relationship ( 133 ), and he/she has a vocational employment contract concluded with his/her own employer, then he/she is entitled to the full monthly wage provided for students involved in practical training;
if a working adult is involved in adult education in the framework of an adult training legal relationship, and he/she does not have a vocational employment contract concluded with his/her own employer, then he/she is entitled to the 50% of the monthly wage provided for students involved in practical training;
if an adult attends evening or distance courses in the framework of a study contract ( 134 ) concluded with his/her employer, then he/she is entitled to 100% of the monthly wage provided for students involved in practical training. If the learning contract is concluded with another employer, then he/she is entitled only to 50% of the monthly wage provided by the law for students involved in practical training;
if an unemployed adult studies in the framework of adult training legal relationship and concludes a vocational employment contract with a business, then he/she is entitled to 100% of the monthly wage provided by the law for students involved in practical training.

Since September 2021, adults in vocational adult education are entitled to a student card. Since 31 May 2021 training loans are also available for students in VET and vocational adult education and training. The loans are interest-free or with favourable interest rates and are supported by the State.

The number and share of adults participating in vocational education and training after the favourable trends between 2016-19 have dropped since 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Adults have the opportunity to acquire two basic vocational occupations and complete a short-cycle vocational training within the formal school system free of charge:

the first either in full-time education (by the age of 25, or at any age in adult education ( 135 );
the second in adult education ( 136 );
short-cycle training (i.e. add-on vocational qualification) at any age in adult training organised by adult training providers;
learners with multiple disadvantages ( 137 ), with disabilities or special education needs can obtain any number of qualifications free of charge, and they can study in full-time education up to the age of 25;
unemployed and vulnerable groups ( 138 ) can receive training support ( 139 ) through the national employment services. Beneficiaries are selected and assisted to choose sector, a qualification-in-demand and a training provider among those available at county level; employers may also launch supported training programmes, if they will provide immediate employment;

Other central, regional and county labour market programmes include - in addition to financial - other individual psycho-social support, mentoring, work placement or temporary employment and entrepreneurial support. ESF-supported training programmes are also in place ( 140 ).

According to the latest available data, 71% of job seekers participating in labour market training programmes in 2017 were in the age group 25-54 (24% under 25), 59% were women; in terms of level of qualifications they had, at most, lower secondary education (39%) or a VET qualification (40%).

Learners in training organised by employers in 2017 were mostly men (75%), aged 25-54 (81%) with a VET qualification (67%). Most attended training for the unemployed (and public workers) and youth guarantee programmes for NEETs.

The labour code includes a right to training leave/benefits ( 141 ) for employees to attend primary education or under a study contract concluded between the employee and the employer ( 142 ). In the latter case, after the end of the training programmes, employees are bound to remain in employment for a specified period of time ( 143 ).

Incentives for companies to train VET learners

Training costs for VET learners (based on a vocational employment contract with a learner) can be deducted from the training levy and claimed (costs not covered by this amount) from the National Tax Office VET contribution account on a per capita rate of deductible/reimbursable costs differentiated by qualification (see Section: Funding).

In 2020 the financial prerequisites and taxation regulations for the company dual work placements were in preparation. Due to the increased student benefits introduced in dual training, a further tax reduction is granted for dual training partners, which can be calculated with an online calculator available on the website of the Hungarian Chamber of Commerce and Industry ( 144 ). The amount of the tax reduction depends on the sectoral classification of each vocational occupation and the grade at which the student is enrolled. Beside this, dual partners can claim additional reimbursement in case students successfully pass the final vocational exam.

The gross tax obligation can be reduced by 20% of the tax relief, if the vocational employment contract is concluded for a minimum of 6 months and if the learner has made a successful professional exam. Dual partners can also spend a part of their training levy on financing workshop (further) development and payment of in-company trainers (in the case of SMEs).

Hospitals and other non-profit organisations ( 145 ) can also claim training costs from the National Tax Office VET contribution account.

The minister responsible for VET can also provide financial support from the National Protection Employment Fund for companies to create or develop training workshops. School-based VET trainers ( 146 ) ensure cooperation between companies and the VET schools.

Incentives for companies to provide training for employees

Companies may use part of the training levy they are obliged to pay to help finance their employees' vocational and foreign language training. This option is mostly used by large companies, due to strict applicability criteria ( 147 ).

Employee training can be accounted under certain conditions and to a certain extent of the VET Contribution levy obligation. Since September 2021, the regulation linked to VET training obligations foresees that, in the case of a vocational employment contract where a person with adult status is involved in adult education, and this person - parallel to his/her vocational employment contract - has another legal relationship linked to another job, the VET contribution levy can be deducted by 50 %.

Companies may also be supported financially by the State to offer training to employees if they create new jobs for at least 50 people or may participate in ESF-supported training actions for the professional development of their employees (either in-company training or other courses purchased from other training providers).

Career guidance and counselling activities are overseen by the education ministry as well as the ministry responsible for VET and adult training. Under the VET Act of 2019, the IKK Innovative Training Support Centre Plc. (IKK, InnovatívKépzéstámogatóKözpontZrt.) as a State administrative VET body is responsible for the coordination of the career guidance and counselling experts in VET institutions, chambers of economy, National Office for VET, Adult Learning (NSZFH) and other stakeholders. The IKK Plc. is also responsible for the development and operation of the Hungarian career orientation and career counselling system in accordance with the EU Directives.

Career guidance is significantly supported by the website operated by the IKK Plc in the framework of the Vocational Enquiry and Information Centre. The website made it possible for all important information related to Hungarian VET to be found on it. In its framework can be found:

separate leaflets and cards presenting each basic vocational occupation ( 148 );
a table of correspondence between the vocational qualifications included in the former national qualification register and the new Register of basic vocational occupations ( 149 )
an interactive map featuring countrywide locations of VET institutions and the vocational occupations and qualifications taught in them ( 150 ).

This website had, up to September 2021, 2 million users and 1 million page visits.

The IKK Plc. also runs a unique and innovative social media platform named SkillsCom ( 151 ), which is the place of networking in VET. In August 2021 the platform had 203 users in total.

According to the Public Education Act of 2019, career orientation of learners is a responsibility of the teachers. The National Core Curriculum defines it as an important development task, to be provided mainly as part of the Way of life and practical skills subject area in lower secondary education. Career guidance and counselling services for primary and secondary school learners are also provided by:

the county/capital pedagogical counselling services, whose tasks include career counselling for (recommendation of school and training programme type for) learners, based on the professional analysis of their competences, attitudes and interests;
the local chambers of economy, which provide career orientation and information services, especially regarding qualifications in high demand on the labour market, by organising career orientation events, factory visits, skills contests for primary school learners, etc.;
the 41 VET centres, which provide information about their vocational programmes both to learners and adults looking for adult education/adult training opportunities.

The most important tools of career orientation and guidance targeting primary and secondary school learners include open days in VET schools, career exhibitions and expos ( 152 ). Such events are often organised by some or all of the above actors in cooperation with the employment departments of government offices.

Career guidance is supported also by the following programmes:

the series of thematic career guidance events Mi a pálya (What is the track?) which are organised in different economic sectors based on experiential pedagogy ( 153 );
the European Skills Week, in which in 2020 Hungary was one of the most active European countries with more than 64 VET institutions and with 114 registered VET programmes;
The Night of trades event, which is intended to be extended in the future as a festival event in central locations involving performers;
TeÉpítsd a jövőd! (You build your future) a professional meeting of experts ( 154 ).

Since 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the career guidance activities were implemented mostly online. According to the latest available data, lots of digital contents were uploaded in 2020 onto the career guidance online platform ( 155 ) operated by the National Office for VET and Adult Learning (NSZFH) to compensate the negative impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Career guidance activities of the NOVETAL's (NSZFH) career guidance online platform in the year 2020:

General web page activity report

Web page activity report related to all thematic events

Web page activity report related to webinars, workshops etc.

Number of visitors: 8115

Number of downloads: 1002
Page views: 19211

Average visit duration: 2min. 26sec.

Number of subscribers: 892 Number of participants: 688

Number of thematic events held on the platform:

Online events to inform parents: 6 events - 351 participants

Informal discussions on how the attractiveness of VET can be raised: 4 events - 207 participants

Presenting the career pathways of famous people: 3 events - 130 participants

Number of subscribers: 1094

Number of shares: on average 3 shares /day

Number of webinars held on the platform: 21 webinars - 1196 participants

Number of workshops held on the online platform: 2 workshops - 120 participants

Interactive activities on the online platform: 7 events - 346 participants

Knowledge share activities held on the online platform: 3 events - 210 participants

Within the framework of the project Improving the quality and content of 21st century vocational training and adult education (GINOP - 6.2.4-VEKOP - 16-2017 - 00001) a Facebook group (Pályaori Klub, Career Guidance Club) was created in order to promote online communication among career guidance experts, teachers and students ( 156 ).

During 2020 the weekly updating of the career guidance portal content was continuous and smooth. Online career guidance events (webinars) were frequent, introducing VET schools in parental meetings and organising individual and group counselling to help young people in their career choice.

The Hungarian Chamber for Commerce and Industry on its online platform dedicated to career guidance ( 157 ) created an application (Szakmavilag app) in 2020, which supports lower secondary school students to learn about their field of interest and to find the vocational occupations and sectors which they can study in Hungary. Students can even share their experiences related to school and company visits in the Szakmavilag app, which also helps them to bring closer the world of work through completing questionnaires and their evaluation.

In the school year 2020/21 25 VET centres started a career orientation development year programme.

Since school year 2020/21 every student in the last grade of his/her lower secondary studies has to complete a compulsory career guidance questionnaire which can be found on the website of the Education Authority (Oktatási Hivatal) ( 158 ). The national career guidance survey consists of 86 questions, which were drawn up based on age-specific features of 14-year-old students. The examination of students' personal competences, enabling them to choose an upper secondary educational pathway based on the provisions of the national public education Act, entering into force in 2020, is an obligation imposed by the later legislation.

Career guidance and counselling in higher education is offered at career centres that operate in most higher education institutions. Information about HE programmes, including higher education VET, is available on a website of the Education Authority ( 159 ).

Adults, unemployed as well as the employed, can obtain career information and counselling at the employment departments of the county/capital government offices. A network of employment information counselling centres (Foglalkozási Információs Tanácsadó, FIT központok) operates as part of these, allowing access to tools (films, brochures, tests etc.) that assist career choice and provide career information. Career information and guidance are offered also by some companies, non-profit organisations, county community centres and family service offices.

Online career information, guidance and counselling is available on the National Career Guidance Portal (NemzetiPályaorientációsPortál) ( 160 ). It provides information on occupations in various formats, links to relevant databases, career orientation tests, online counselling as well as methodological support materials to various target groups, including primary and secondary school learners, adults, parents, experts and institutions.

Please see:

guidance and outreach Hungary national report ( 161 );
Cedefop's labour market intelligence toolkit ( 162 );
Cedefop's inventory of lifelong guidance systems and practices ( 163 ).

Vocational education and training system chart

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Programme Types

EQF 2-3 ([164])

School workshop/catch-up programme, 6-24 months, for those who completed the basic competences development Springboard programme or for learners who have lower secondary education certificate EQF level 2 and are minimum 16 years of age.

EQF - school for skills development for SEN learners (készségfejlesztő iskola) ([176]) 2-4 Vocational school programmes for SEN learners (szakiskola) ([177])

VET for SEN learners

2 or 4 years,

WBL % varies

ISCED 343, 352, 353

EQF 4 (without allowing access to Tertiary education)

Practice-oriented VET

programmes,

3 years,

WBL % varies

ISCED 353

EQF 4-5

Technological programmes

5 years,

WBL % varies

ISCED 344-454

EQF 5

School-based practice-oriented

programmes,

1-2 years,

WBL varies%

ISCED 454

EQF 5

Higher education VET

programmes,

2 years,

WBL % varies

ISCED 554

School workshop/catch-up programme leading to EQF level 2-3 (műhelyiskola program)
EQF level	2-3 ([164])	ISCED-P 2011 level	The ISCED classification is in progress.
Usual entry grade	MŰHELYISKOLA ( 165 )	Usual completion grade	MŰHELYISKOLA ( 166 )
Usual entry age	16 ( 167 )	Usual completion age	17 ( 168 )
Length of a programme (years)	6-24 months
Is it part of compulsory education and training?	No	Is it part of formal education and training system?	Yes
Is it initial VET?	Y	Is it continuing VET?	N
Is it offered free of charge?	Yes Public education is free of charge for learners up to obtaining of two VET qualifications.	Is it available for adults?	Y Adults that are former drop-outs can also enrol.

ECVET or other credits	Information not available ( 169 )
Learning forms (e.g. dual, part-time, distance)	regular school-based full-time education for learners over 16 alternative educational environment: school training workshops or corporate location
Main providers	VET schools (that provide upper secondary VET). In case of private VET schools, the launching of the preparatory programme should be included in the Cooperation Agreement ( 170 ).
Share of work-based learning provided by schools and companies	primarily WBL The aim of this programme is to support students that cannot study in a traditional school environment to obtain a partial vocational qualification. The education is mainly delivered in a real working environment or school training workshops where students learn the qualification in practice under the direction of a vocational teacher (master). There are also teachers supporting students as mentors up to 1 day in a week, offering competence development and mentoring. School workshop/catch-up programmes are not part of the dual training system, since learners in the programme do not take a sectoral basic examination which is required for participating in dual training.
Work-based learning type (workshops at schools, in-company training / apprenticeships)	practical training in the school workshop practical training at a company (based on cooperation agreements, no dual training is available)
Main target groups	The school workshop/catch-up programme (műhelyiskola program) was introduced in 2020 by the VET Act of 2019 ( 171 ). Its aim is to prevent and reduce early leaving from education by providing a safety net for young people who are struggling in the traditional school environment. Drop-outs can enrol and adults can participate, there is no upper age limit for the programme. The school workshop/catch-up programme prepares learners to continue studies in upper secondary education (in order to obtain the full qualification) or to enter the labour market. The school workshop/catch-up programme is organised in small groups of 1-5 learners.
Entry requirements for learners (qualification/education level, age)	Entry requirements for the school workshop/catch-up programme: lower secondary education certificate EQF level 2 (alapfokúiskolaivégzettség) and minimum 16 years of age in absence of lower secondary education certificate EQF level 2 (alapfokúiskolaivégzettség) students must have obtained the basic competences development Springboard programme (dobbantó) certificate.
Assessment of learning outcomes	There are no grades and failing during the school workshop/catch-up programme, since the duration of the programme is flexible (lasts from 6 to 24 months) and is adapted individually to each learner. The performance is recorded and assessed during the programme in text in the personal development plan ( 172 ). The outcome requirements and exam activities of the partial qualification are defined in the Programme and outcome requirements (képzési és kimeneti követelmények, KKK). Outcome requirements are described as competences and skills, knowledge, expected behaviour and attitude as well as level of independence and responsibility. They are assessed during the exam in the framework of a project task by an independent examination board.
Diplomas/certificates provided	Upon completion of the programme, learners take a vocational exam where they can obtain a certificate on a partial vocational qualification (részszakma), which entitles them to fill at least one type of position in a given profession. A partial vocational qualification can be achieved at EQF level 2, for example assistant cook (szakácssegéd) ( 173 ), or a partial vocational qualification at EQF level 3, for example chocolate products manufacturer (csokoládétermék gyártó) ( 174 ). For those who completed the basic competences development Springboard programme before entering into the school workshop/catch-up programme, the certificate proves the completion of lower secondary education (EQF level 2) (alapfokú iskolai végzettség) as well.
Examples of qualifications	Grocery store food preparation worker, painter, cook assistant
Progression opportunities for learners after graduation	Learners having completed the school workshop/catch-up programme may: enter the labour market; move on to any of the two upper secondary VET tracks delivered at ISCED levels 344/454 (technological programmes) and ISCED level 353 (practice-oriented programmes), in grade 9.
Destination of graduates	Information not available
Awards through validation of prior learning	No
General education subjects	No The curriculum of the school workshop/catch up programme is based on the Programme and outcome requirements of the partial vocational qualification and does not include general education subjects ( 175 ).
Key competences	Yes Programme and outcome requirements of the partial vocational qualification describe competences in terms of skills, knowledge, expected behaviour and attitudes, level of autonomy and responsibility. They comprise several components/parts of key competences.
Application of learning outcomes approach	Yes The learning outcomes with reference to competences, knowledge, expected attitude and level of independence and responsibility are defined in the Programme and outcome requirements.
Share of learners in this programme type compared with the total number of VET learners	0.1% In the 2020/21 school year pilot, 207 learners enrolled in the programme (pilot year data are not suitable for future extrapolation).

School for skills development for special education needs (SEN) learners, ISCED 343 (készségfejlesztő iskola). Vocational school programmes for special education needs (SEN) learners leading to EQF levels 2-4, ISCED 352/353 (szakiskola).
EQF level	- school for skills development for SEN learners (készségfejlesztő iskola) ([176]) 2-4 Vocational school programmes for SEN learners (szakiskola) ([177])	ISCED-P 2011 level	343 school for skills development for SEN learners (készségfejlesztő iskola) 352/353 Vocational school programmes for SEN learners (szakiskola)
Usual entry grade	9 ( 180 )	Usual completion grade	10 or 12
Usual entry age	14 ( 181 )	Usual completion age	18 for school for skills development for SEN learners (készségfejlesztő iskola) 16 (17) or 18 (19) for vocational school programmes for SEN learners (szakiskola) ( 182 )
Length of a programme (years)	4 school for skills development for SEN learners (készségfejlesztő iskola) ( 178 ) 2-4 Vocational school programmes for SEN learners (szakiskola) ( 179 )
Is it part of compulsory education and training?	Yes Schooling is compulsory for learners up to age 16. The programme type targets SEN learners from age 14 to 23.	Is it part of formal education and training system?	Yes
Is it initial VET?	Y	Is it continuing VET?	Y These programmes are also available to those who have already obtained a vocational qualification, to obtain a second one. In that sense it can also be considered as CVET.
Is it offered free of charge?	Yes Public education is free of charge for learners up to obtaining two VET qualifications	Is it available for adults?	Y

ECVET or other credits	Information not available ( 183 )
Learning forms (e.g. dual, part-time, distance)	regular school-based full-time education adult education (for learners over 16) practical training is part of the curriculum of all VET programmes and can be delivered in school workshops and/or at companies
Main providers	VET schools for SEN learners are public education institutions founded according to the Public Education Act of 2011 (PE Act). VET institutions can provide this education form as well ( 184 ).
Share of work-based learning provided by schools and companies	WBL % varies.
Work-based learning type (workshops at schools, in-company training / apprenticeships)	practical training in school workshops practical training in a company in the framework of dual training
Main target groups	They target learners aged 14-23 in need of special education due to mental or other disabilities.
Entry requirements for learners (qualification/education level, age)	The entry requirement is the primary school certificate (ISCED 244) and an official assessment of their special needs ( 185 ).
Assessment of learning outcomes	The 4-year school for skills development (készségfejlesztő iskola) offers 2 years of general education and 2 years of practical skills development to SEN learners. Upon completion of the last grade, learners obtain a certificate on completion of secondary education ( 186 ). The 2- or 4 -year vocational school programmes for SEN learners (szakiskola) prepare them to achieve a vocational qualification at EQF level 2,3 or 4 ( 187 ), depending on the type of disability (they may also include an extra preparatory year for learners with less severe mental disabilities). The vocational qualification is awarded on passing the final complex exam. Learners’ competences are assessed in various (written, oral, interactive and/or practical) exam activities (as defined in the qualification and output requirements and/or the programme requirements) by an independent examination board.
Diplomas/certificates provided	Learners in school for skills development programmes receive a certificate (középfokú végzettség/ secondary school qualification) ( 188 ) on completion of secondary education upon completing the last grade ( 189 ). Learners in vocational school programmes for SEN learners complete an education and training programme at ISCED levels 253 or 353 (2- or 4-year programmes, with an extra preparatory year for learners with less severe mental disabilities), depending on the type of disability. Upon completion of the 2-year programme ( 190 ) a partial vocational qualification (reszszakma/sub-profession) can be obtained at EQF level 2-3, for example asztalosipari szerelő/ carpentry mechanic (EQF level 2) ( 191 ) or állatgondozó/ animal caretaker (EQF level 3) ( 192 ). Upon completion of the 4-year programme ( 193 ) a (partial) vocational qualification (szakmai bizonyítvány/vocational certificate) can be obtained at EQF level 3-4, for example népi kézműves (fazekas szakmairány)/ folk crafts (pottery) (EQF level 3) ( 194 ) or asztalos/ carpenter (EQF level 4) ( 195 ).
Examples of qualifications	Carpenter, pastry maker, painter
Progression opportunities for learners after graduation	Learners having completed the school for skills development or the vocational school programmes for SEN learners: may enter the labour market; are better prepared for an independent life (those with more severe mental disabilities in the practical skills development track).
Destination of graduates	Information not available
Awards through validation of prior learning	No
General education subjects	Yes The share of general education ( 196 ) varies and is adapted to the nature of the special educational needs in these programmes ( 197 ).
Key competences	Yes The curriculum of general education is based on the National core curriculum that includes key competence development. Four key competences - foreign language, Hungarian language, digital competence and competences in mathematics, science and technology - are to be developed as stand-alone subjects. Development of other key competences is described in the outcome requirements of particular school subjects and depends on local school practices. Standards and framework curricula of vocational qualifications define vocational, personal, social and methodological competences, corresponding to the particular task profile, by modules. They comprise several components/parts of key competences.
Application of learning outcomes approach	Yes Special framework curricula are modularised and defined in competences, but they are not yet defined in terms of genuine learning outcomes ( 198 ). The modules may be unique or shared by two or more qualification(s) that belong to the same occupational group or sector. They are published by the education minister and specify for each work activity: its 'task profile’ (occupational standards); the related 'character profile’ that specifies different types of knowledge and skills required to perform those tasks: vocational competences: vocational knowledge and vocational skills; personal competences (e.g. independence, precision); social competences (e.g. empathy, comprehensibility); method competences (e.g. prudence, practical thinking).
Share of learners in this programme type compared with the total number of VET learners	2.7% ( 199 )

3-year secondary vocational school (practice-oriented) programmes leading to EQF level 4, ISCED 353 (szakképző iskola)
EQF level	4 (without allowing access to Tertiary education)	ISCED-P 2011 level	353
Usual entry grade	9	Usual completion grade	11
Usual entry age	14	Usual completion age	17 ( 201 )
Length of a programme (years)	3 ( 200 )
Is it part of compulsory education and training?	Yes Schooling is compulsory for learners up to age 16.	Is it part of formal education and training system?	Yes
Is it initial VET?	Y	Is it continuing VET?	Y These programmes are also available to those who have already obtained a vocational qualification ( 203 ), to prepare a second or an add-on vocational qualification.
Is it offered free of charge?	Yes Public education is free of charge for learners up to obtaining two VET qualifications; add-on qualifications may also be offered free of charge.	Is it available for adults?	Y

ECVET or other credits	Information not available ( 202 )
Learning forms (e.g. dual, part-time, distance)	regular school-based full-time education participation is available for adults (both student status and adult learner status is available between 16-25 years; adult learner status over 25) abbreviated educational time and flexible training structure is available in vocational education in the framework of adult learner status practical training is part of the curriculum of all VET programmes and can be delivered in school workshops and/or at companies (see sections on WBL). The number and share of adult education participants have nearly tripled since 2015, when the opportunity to obtain a second vocational qualification free of charge was introduced. In the school year 2019/20, 28% of all learners in secondary vocational school programmes studied in adult education (see figure below). *Share of learners studying in adult education in VET schools () (%), 2011-20** Image NB: () Titles of VET schools in use as of 2020/21. Source*: KSH, STADAT database ( 204 )
Main providers	VET schools that provide these types of programmes ( 205 )
Share of work-based learning provided by schools and companies	WBL % varies. General education is 33%, while VET is 67%. In the programme curricula, theory and practice are not sharply separated. The aim is to have the opportunity to teach theory embedded in practice as well. So, the distinction between theory and WBL is not clearly defined in this case ( 206 ).
Work-based learning type (workshops at schools, in-company training / apprenticeships)	practical training in school workshops practical training at a dual training site in the framework of an employment contract for VET students
Main target groups	They target learners aged 14 and offer skilled workers’ training ( 207 ). Adults over 16 can also enter these programmes at any age to obtain their first or second vocational ( 208 ) qualification free of charge.
Entry requirements for learners (qualification/education level, age)	Learners can enter these programmes at age 14, upon completion of the 8 years of primary school (end of lower secondary education) and holding the primary school certificate (ISCED 244) or upon completing school workshop/catch-up programmes ( 209 ). Young people and adults over 16 can enter these programmes at any age.
Assessment of learning outcomes	According to the VET Act of 2019, the first year of practice-oriented VET programmes provides sectoral content in the school. Sectoral foundation education is followed by 2 years of specialised education, primarily in the framework of dual training. Students complete their specialised vocational education (partly or fully) at a dual training site by entering into an employment contract for VET students. If dual training cannot be offered, specialised education is delivered by the VET institution. The programme curricula for VET, based on the qualification and outcome requirements of the VET qualification pursued ( 210 ) are published by the minister responsible for VET. The framework curriculum for general education ( 211 ) defines the share of general education and VET as 33-67%. Upon completion, these programmes award a full VET qualification at the final complex exam ( 212 ). Learners’ competences are assessed in various (written, oral, interactive and/or practical) exam activities (as defined in the qualification and outcome requirements) by an independent examination board. A follow-up optional 2-year general education programme leading to the secondary school leaving certificate (érettségi bizonyítvány, ISCED 344) awarded at the secondary school leaving exam is also available (since school year 2016/17) to those wishing to access post-secondary or higher education.
Diplomas/certificates provided	Graduates of the 3-year practice-oriented VET programmes receive a certificate on the completion of secondary education upon completing the last grade. They also get a full vocational qualification on the basis of the final complex exam. Those moving on to the additional and optional 2-year general education follow-up programme and succeeding in the final exam also receive the (upper) secondary school leaving certificate (EQF level 4) allowing access to higher level studies at post-secondary VET and/or higher VET.
Examples of qualifications	Cook, electrician or carpenter
Progression opportunities for learners after graduation	Learners having completed the VET school (skilled workers’ training) programme: may enter the labour market; may enrol in the additional/optional follow-up 2-year general education programme to prepare the secondary school leaving certificate (ISCED 344), which can be acquired in 2 years due to the prior general education content of the programme; in this case, they can also move on to post-secondary VET/ISCED 454 programmes or higher VET/ISCED 554 programmes;
Destination of graduates	According to the latest data available, based on a 2012 study, around one third of graduates of skilled worker training (of the previous forms) ( 213 ) were studying 2 years after graduation (26% in full time, 9% in adult education while also working) ( 214 ).
Awards through validation of prior learning	No The complex examination that awards vocational qualifications upon completion of practice-oriented VET programmes does not allow recognition of prior learning (no exemption can be obtained from taking the whole or a part of the exam). Nevertheless, learners in VET schools can get their prior learning recognised during their training, subject to the principal’s decision. The VET Act of 2019 also provides for the opportunity to recognise previous work experience upon the completion of vocational practical training, subject to the principal’s decision.
General education subjects	Yes 33% According to the VET decree of 2020 (VET Act of 2019) Programme curricula have to ensure that in VET schools 33% of the total mandatory time in grades 9-11 is covered by general education ( 215 ).
Key competences	Yes The curriculum of general education is based on the National core curriculum that includes key competence development ( 216 ). Four key competences - foreign language, Hungarian language, digital competence and competences in mathematics, science and technology - are to be developed as stand-alone subjects. Development of other key competences is described in the outcome requirements of particular school subjects and depends on local school practices. Standards and framework curricula of vocational qualifications describe competences in terms of skills, knowledge, attitudes, autonomy and responsibility and general and vocation- specific digital competences by subjects. They comprise several components/parts of key competences.
Application of learning outcomes approach	Yes The VET Act of 2019 introduced the National register of vocational occupations (Szakmajegyzék) replacing NVQR. The related qualification and outcome requirements define qualifications by learning outcomes and do not prescribe methods to be applied in order to achieve the given qualification. They are published by the minister responsible for VET and specify the learning outcomes by: skills and competences knowledge, expected behaviour and attitude level of independence and responsibility.
Share of learners in this programme type compared with the total number of VET learners	27% ( 217 )

Technological programmes leading to EQF level 4-5, ISCED 344-454 (technikum)
EQF level	4-5	ISCED-P 2011 level	344-454
Usual entry grade	9 ( 219 )	Usual completion grade	13
Usual entry age	14	Usual completion age	19 ( 220 )
Length of a programme (years)	5 ( 218 )
Is it part of compulsory education and training?	Schooling is compulsory for learners up to 16 years old.	Is it part of formal education and training system?	Yes
Is it initial VET?	Y	Is it continuing VET?	N
Is it offered free of charge?	Yes Public education is free of charge for learners up to obtaining the secondary school leaving certificate and two VET qualifications.	Is it available for adults?	Y

ECVET or other credits	Information not available ( 221 )
Learning forms (e.g. dual, part-time, distance)	regular school-based full-time education participation is available for adults (both student status and adult learner status is available between 16-25 years; adult learner status over 25) abbreviated education time and flexible training structure is available in vocational education in the framework of adult learner status practical training is part of the curriculum of all VET programmes and can be delivered in school workshops and/or at companies (see sections on WBL)
Main providers	VET schools that provide these types of programmes ( 222 )
Share of work-based learning provided by schools and companies	WBL % varies ( 223 ) General education is at least 60% of the time available for compulsory occupations in grades 9-12. In the qualifications programme curricula, theory and practice are not sharply separated. The aim is to have the opportunity to teach theory embedded in practice as well ( 224 ).
Work-based learning type (workshops at schools, in-company training / apprenticeships)	practical training in school workshops practical training at a dual training site in the framework of an employment contract for VET students
Main target groups	They target learners aged 14 and provide 5 years of combined general education and VET (some programmes may have an extra 'foreign language preparatory’ year) ( 225 ). Graduates with the secondary school leaving certificate (ISCED 344) and a vocational qualification (ISCED 454) can continue studies either in post-secondary VET (ISCED 454) for a second qualification or in higher education. Adults over 16 can also enter these programmes at any age to obtain their first or second VET qualification ( 226 ) free of charge.
Entry requirements for learners (qualification/education level, age)	The entry requirement is holding the primary school certificate (EQF level 2) and popular schools may select learners based on their performance in primary school and at a countrywide secondary school entry exam taken in maths and Hungarian (and possibly also an oral exam organised by the school). Learners with the primary school (primary and lower secondary) education certificate can enter these programmes at age 14 (grade 9), and older learners may also enrol in grade 9. Young people and adults over 16 can enter these programmes at any age.
Assessment of learning outcomes	Following the 2020 VET reform resulting from the implementation of VET Act 2019, learners entering ninth grade for the first time in 2020/21 will take the VET secondary school leaving exam at the end of the 5-year programmes. This differs from the exam taken in grammar schools in that - in addition to the four mandatory general education exam subjects (Hungarian language and literature, mathematics, history and a foreign language) - the fifth optional exam subject is replaced by the mandatory vocational exam. Up to a maximum of three general education exam subjects, the exams can be taken 1 or 2 years prior to the completion of studies. The vocational examination, which is the fifth exam subject, is taken at the end of the 13th grade. The vocational secondary school leaving certificate qualifies holders not only to progress to post-secondary/higher education but also to perform all positions of at least one full qualification (occupation) ( 227 ). At the complex exam, learners’ competences are assessed in various (written, oral, interactive and/or practical) exam activities (as defined in the qualification and output requirements) by an independent examination board.
Diplomas/certificates provided	Learners in 5-year technological/ technicum programmes receive two certificates: a secondary school leaving certificate (érettségi bizonyítvány, ISCED 344/EQF level 4) ( 228 ) and a vocational qualification EQF level 5 at a programme of ISCED level 454, both at the end of the fifth year ( 229 ). The vocational certificate is an intermediate level vocational qualification acknowledged by the State that entitles its holder to progress on to higher education as well as to perform all positions of at least one profession.
Examples of qualifications	Financial and accounting administrator, software development and software testing technician, logistics technician.
Progression opportunities for learners after graduation	Learners having completed the 5-year ISCED 344/454 technological programme/technicum may: enrol in post-secondary ISCED 454/EQF5 programmes (called 'VET years of technicum’) to obtain a further vocational qualification either in the same sector (one year programme) or a different sector (2-year programme); move on to higher VET ISCED 554/EQF5 programmes offered in higher education institutions; move on to higher education bachelor ISCED 665/EQF6 programmes (where they can get extra points at the admission procedure, if applying for a bachelor programme in the same sector); enter the labour market.
Destination of graduates	Information not available
Awards through validation of prior learning	No The complex examination that awards vocational qualifications listed in the National register of vocational occupations (Szakmajegyzék) ( 230 ) does not allow for recognition of prior learning (no exemption can be obtained from taking the whole or a part of the exam). Nevertheless, learners in VET institutions can have their prior learning recognised during their training, subject to the principal’s decision. The VET Act also provides for the opportunity to recognise previous work experience in the completion of vocational practical training, subject to the principal’s decision.
General education subjects	Yes 60% According to the VET decree, Programme curriculums have to ensure that in grades 9-12 in technicums at least 60% of the total mandatory time frame is covered by general education ( 231 ). In grade 13 general education is restricted to foreign language.
Key competences	Yes The curriculum of general education is based on the National core curriculum that includes key competence development. Four key competences - foreign language, Hungarian language, digital competence and competences in mathematics, science and technology - are to be developed as stand-alone subjects. Development of other key competences is described in the outcome requirements of particular school subjects and depends on local school practices. Programme curricula of vocational qualifications describe competences in terms of skills, knowledge, expected behaviour and attitudes, level of autonomy and responsibility and general and vocation specific digital competences by subjects. They comprise several components/parts of key competences.
Application of learning outcomes approach	Yes The VET Act of 2019 introduced the National register of vocational occupations (Szakmajegyzék) replacing the National vocational qualification register (NVQR). The related Programme and outcome requirements define qualifications by learning outcomes and do not prescribe methods to be applied in order to achieve the given qualification. They are published by the minister responsible for VET and specify the learning outcomes by: skills and competences; knowledge; expected behaviour and attitude; level of autonomy and responsibility.
Share of learners in this programme type compared with the total number of VET learners	68% ( 232 )

Post-secondary VET programmes leading to EQF level 5, ISCED 454 (technikum érettségi végzettséggel kizárólag szakmai vizsgára felkészítő évfolyamok)
EQF level	5	ISCED-P 2011 level	454
Usual entry grade	13	Usual completion grade	14 or 15 ( 234 )
Usual entry age	18 or 19 ( 235 )	Usual completion age	20-22
Length of a programme (years)	1 - 2 ( 233 )
Is it part of compulsory education and training?	No Schooling is compulsory for learners up to 16 years old.	Is it part of formal education and training system?	Yes
Is it initial VET?	Y	Is it continuing VET?	Y ( 237 )
Is it offered free of charge?	Yes Public education is free of charge for learners up to the obtainment of two VET qualifications.	Is it available for adults?	Y

ECVET or other credits	Information not available ( 236 )
Learning forms (e.g. dual, part-time, distance)	regular school-based full-time education attendance between 16-25 is available both as student status and as adult learner status; over 25 in adult learner status abbreviated education time and flexible training structure is available in vocational education in the framework of adult learner status practical training is part of the curriculum of all VET programmes and can be delivered in school workshops and/or at companies (see sections on WBL)
Main providers	VET schools that provide these types of programmes ( 238 )
Share of work-based learning provided by schools and companies	WBL % varies. General education in school-based practice-oriented programmes covers foreign language classes and amounts to approximately 11% of the time frame available for compulsory occupations. In the qualifications programme curricula, theory and practice are not sharply separated. The aim is to have the opportunity to teach theory embedded in practice as well ( 239 ).
Work-based learning type (workshops at schools, in-company training / apprenticeships)	practical training in school workshops practical training at a dual training site in the framework of an employment contract for VET students
Main target groups	Programmes are mainly targeting: graduates of technological programmes / technicums (having already the secondary school leaving certificate as well as an ISCED 454 vocational qualification) to obtain a second vocational qualification; graduates of grammar schools (having only the secondary school leaving certificate) that wish to acquire a technician qualification at ISCED level 454 ( 240 ); graduates of the former 4-year-old vocational grammar schools (having the secondary school leaving certificate as well as prior VET studies); graduates of practice-oriented VET programmes ISCED 353 who also completed the 2-year follow-up programme to obtain the secondary school-leaving certificate (ISCED 344) aiming to acquire a technician qualification.
Entry requirements for learners (qualification/education level, age)	Entry requirements are: holding the secondary school leaving certificate (ISCED 344); duration of school-based practice-oriented programme is 2 years, as learners do not have prior VET learning); holding the VET upper secondary school certificate (ISCED 344); duration of school-based practice-oriented programme can be reduced by 1 year if training is followed in the same sector; graduates of practice-oriented VET programmes with a secondary school leaving certificate; duration of school-based practice-oriented programme can be reduced by 1 year in case the learner has an ISCED 353 level qualification in the same sector.
Assessment of learning outcomes	The programme curricula for VET, based on the Programme and outcome requirements of the VET qualification pursued ( 241 ) are published by the minister responsible for VET. Upon completion, these programmes award a full VET qualification at the final complex exam. Learners’ competences are assessed in various (written, oral, interactive and/or practical) exam activities (as defined in the qualification and outcome requirements) by an independent examination board.
Diplomas/certificates provided	VET learners receive a technician qualification listed in the National register of vocational occupations (Szakmajegyzék). The vocational certificate is an intermediate level vocational qualification acknowledged by the State that entitles its holder to progress on to higher education as well as to perform all positions of at least one profession.
Examples of qualifications	Financial and accounting administrator, software development and software testing technician, logistics technician
Progression opportunities for learners after graduation	Learners having completed the post-secondary practice-oriented programmes may: enrol in another post-secondary ISCED 454/EQF5 programme to obtain a further vocational qualification either in the same sector (in this case the duration of the programme is reduced by 1 year) or a different sector (full time duration); move on to higher VET ISCED 554/EQF5 programmes offered in higher education institutions; move on to tertiary education bachelor ISCED 665/EQF6 programmes (where they can get extra points at the admission procedure if applying for a bachelor programme in the same sector); enter the labour market.
Destination of graduates	Information not available
Awards through validation of prior learning	No The complex examination that awards vocational qualifications listed in the National register of vocational occupations (Szakmajegyzék) does not allow for recognition of prior learning (no exemption can be obtained from taking the whole or a part of the exam). Learners in VET institutions can get their prior learning recognised during their training, subject to the principal’s decision. The VET Act of 2019 also provides for the opportunity to recognise previous work experience in the completion of vocational practical training, subject to the principal’s decision.
General education subjects	Yes 11% (only one subject: foreign language, in 4 lessons/week)
Key competences	Yes Curricula involve foreign language education. Programme curricula of vocational qualifications describe competences in terms of skills, knowledge, expected behaviour and attitudes, level of autonomy and responsibility and general and vocation specific digital competences by subjects. They comprise several components/parts of key competences.
Application of learning outcomes approach	Yes The VET Act of 2019 introduced the National register of vocational occupations (Szakmajegyzék) replacing the National vocational qualifications register (NVQR). The related Programme and outcome requirements define qualifications by learning outcomes instead of prescribing methods to be applied in order to achieve the given qualification. They are published by the minister responsible for VET and specify the learning outcomes by: skills and competences knowledge, expected behaviour and attitude level of autonomy and responsibility.
Share of learners in this programme type compared with the total number of VET learners	15.6% ( 242 )

Higher education VET programmes leading to EQF level 5, ISCED 554 (felsőoktatási szakképzés)
EQF level	5	ISCED-P 2011 level	554
Usual entry grade	Not applicable	Usual completion grade	Not applicable
Usual entry age	18	Usual completion age	20
Length of a programme (years)	2
Is it part of compulsory education and training?	No Schooling is compulsory for learners up to age 16.	Is it part of formal education and training system?	Yes
Is it initial VET?	Y	Is it continuing VET?	Y It can be considered as CVET when the learner has previously received a vocational qualification ( 245 ).
Is it offered free of charge?	Yes These programmes are offered both in State-financed and self-financed form. Learners can participate in State-financed higher education for up to at most 12 semesters (total allowance for higher education VET, bachelor and master programmes). Quotas are defined annually for the number of learners who may be admitted to State-financed education.	Is it available for adults?	Y In higher education the same programme may be offered in full, part-time or distance learning forms ( 244 ).

ECVET or other credits	120 (ECTS) credit points ( 243 ) Graduates can transfer 30-90 credits to a bachelor programme in the same field.
Learning forms (e.g. dual, part-time, distance)	full-time education; part-time education (evening or correspondence, in 30-50% of in class hours of full-time education); distance learning (<30% of in class hours); minimum 14-week company-based practice (if it is provided in a block of 6 or more weeks, it must be organised on the basis of a cooperation agreement between the HE institution and the company; in this case, the company also has to make a student work contract with the learner) ( 246 ).
Main providers	Higher education institutions
Share of work-based learning provided by schools and companies	WBL % varies. The range is from 40 to 80% but the most common is 60 to 70% ( 247 ). Higher education VET programmes include a mandatory, one-semester-long (minimum 14 weeks) period of company-based practice in the last (4th) semester. If this company-based practice is provided in a block of 6 or more weeks, it must be organised on the basis of a cooperation agreement between the higher education institution and the company. The company then also has to make a student work contract (hallgatói munkaszerződés) with the student.
Work-based learning type (workshops at schools, in-company training / apprenticeships)	practical training at the HE institution practical training at a company (if provided in a block of 6 or more weeks, on the basis of a cooperation agreement between the school and the company as well as a student work contract between the learner and the company)
Main target groups	Learners with the secondary school leaving certificate (ISCED 344), who wish to obtain a higher-level certificate in a short and flexible programme. Transferability of credits can also help transition to bachelor level education. According to the most recent data available from 2017/18, only 4.3% of all learners in higher education studied in these programmes.
Entry requirements for learners (qualification/education level, age)	Entry requirements are: holding the upper secondary school certificate (ISCED 344); higher education VET providers might also require previous VET studies.
Assessment of learning outcomes	Learners who completed all study and examination requirements and the professional practice specified in the curriculum obtain the final certificate (abszolutórium). The higher education VET qualification is awarded at the final exam (záróvizsga) that involves defending a thesis and may also have oral, written and practical parts ( 248 ).
Diplomas/certificates provided	Higher education VET programmes award an ISCED 554 vocational qualification (not included in the National register of vocational occupations).
Examples of qualifications	Economist assistant in tourism and catering specialised in tourism, network information technology engineer assistant ( 249 )
Progression opportunities for learners after graduation	Learners having completed higher education VET programmes may: progress to a bachelor programme (where they can transfer 30-90 credits in the same field); enter the labour market.
Destination of graduates	Information not available
Awards through validation of prior learning	No Although higher education legislation permits earning (ECTS) credits by validation (of prior learning/work experience), at least one-third of the credits must be earned in the institution issuing the qualification ( 250 ) and it is not possible to acquire the higher education VET qualification by validation only.
General education subjects	No Curricula for these programmes are modularised and involve: a shared competence module of all higher education VET programmes (12 credits), including development of labour market, foreign language, VET, financial information and communication competences; a shared module of all programmes in a training field (21 credits, including a shared module of the training branch of 15 credits); a VET module (87 credits, including practical training of 30 credits and a specialisation module of 15 credits).
Key competences	Yes Some key competence development is included in the shared competence module of all higher education VET programmes (12 credits). Such key competences are labour market, foreign language, VET, financial information and communication competences.
Application of learning outcomes approach	Yes The standards (called 'training and qualification requirements’) of higher education VET programmes define learning outcomes in terms of knowledge, skills, attitudes and autonomy and responsibility.
Share of learners in this programme type compared with the total number of VET learners	According to the most recent data available from 2017/18, only 4.3% of all learners in higher education studied in these programmes. 3.9% (2017/18) ( 251 )

EU Member States

Other

Hungary

General themes

Vocational education and training system chart

Programme Types